D'Aguesseau never
mentioned
the king by name and insisted that whatever Louis's failings, his subjects suffered from them as well.
Cult of the Nation in France
pre?
sente?
a l'Acade?
mie franc?
oise pour le prix de 1766 et dont on n'a fait aucune mention (Paris, 1767), 6.
This point is made by Sahlins, "Fictions of a Catholic France. "
See Godechot, "Nation, patrie, nationalisme et patriotisme" (see Intro. , n. 22), 486; Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale: Nation, repre? sentation, proprie? te? (Paris, 1974), 31; Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 5; quote from Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46), 76.
See the discussion of these points by Pierre Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77), esp. 802.
Victor de Riquetti de Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, ou traite? de la population, ed. Rouxel (Paris, 1883). On the enormous popularity of the book in the 1760s, see vi. Mirabeau, often identified with the physiocrats, was the father of the revolutionary orator.
On his use of "civilization," see Moras, Ursprung, 5; on his use of "regenera- tion," see Morrissey, L'empereur a` la barbe fleurie, 268. D'Alembert had used the originally theological concept of "regeneration" in the preliminary dis- course to the Encyclope? die, but far more sparingly. See Alyssa R. Sepinwall, "Regenerating France, Regenerating the World: The Abbe? Gre? goire and the French Revolution, 1750-1831," Ph. D. diss. , Stanford University (1998), 83- 87.
Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, 247-68.
See esp. ibid. , 316-29, on the question of whether France itself had yet reached the point of decrepitude.
Robert-Martin Lesuire, Les sauvages de l'Europe (Berlin, 1760), quote from 41. The novel had sufficient success to be reprinted during France and England's next war (Paris, 1780); it was even translated into English (The Savages of Eu- rope, London, 1764).
Ibid. , 22, 35-9, 126, 42.
C. -S. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux (Paris, 1763, repr. 1771), 5; Jean-Bernard Leblanc and La Coste, quoted in Grieder, Anglomania (see Intro. , n. 55), 42; Lettre d'un jeune homme (see Intro. , n. 70), 44; Louis-Charles Fougeret de
Notes to Pages 44-46 237
? Montbron, Pre? servatif contre l'Anglomanie ("Minorca," 1757), 51; Edmond- Jean-Franc? ois Barbier, Chronique de la re? gence et du re`gne de Louis XV, 7 vols. (Paris, 1885), III, 273. In general, see Grieder, Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme; and Frances Acomb, Anglophobia in France: An Essay in the His- tory of Constitutionalism and Nationalism (Durham, 1950).
97. Acomb's Anglophobia, which focuses on attitudes toward the English consti- tution, concludes that "Anglophile liberalism" declined towards the end of the old regime. Grieder, whose Anglomania takes in a broader spectrum of cultural influences, argues for the persistence of a dialectic between Anglo- phobia and Anglomania, as does Dziembowski in Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais.
98. See also Edmond Dziembowski, "Les de? buts d'un publiciste au service de la monarchie: L'activite? litte? raire de Jacob-Nicolas Moreau pendant la guerre de sept ans," Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 4 (1995), 305-22; J. Labourdette, Vergennes, 205-8 (see Intro. , n. 70).
99. For an overview of this literature, see Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought: Its Form and Function in the Ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694-1790 (South Bend, 1977); Gerd van den Heuvel, "Cosmopolite, cosmopolitisme," in Reichart and Schmitt, eds. , Handbuch politisch-sozialer Grundbegriffe, VI (Munich, 1986), 41-55. Notes to Pages 44-46
100. Ferlus, Le patriotisme, 29; abbe? Baudeau, quoted in Elie-Lefebvre, 170; Journal encyclope? dique, par une socie? te? de gens de lettres, I (Jan. 15, 1756), 31; ibid. , 30; Apologie du caracte`re des anglois et des franc? ois (n. p. , 1726), 65.
101. Elie-Lefebvre, 169-81; Montesquieu, Cahiers, 1716-1755, Bernard Grasset, ed. (Paris, 1941), 9-10.
102. Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, 12, 431.
103. Discours sur le patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 56), 10; A. J. de Baptestein de
Mouliers Rupe, Me? moire sur un moyen facile et infallible de faire renai^tre le patriotisme en France, dans toutes les classes des citoyens, comme dans les deux sexes (Amsterdam, 1789), 1; Le patriotisme, poe? me, 6; Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray, Dictionnaire social et patriotique (Amsterdam, 1770), unpaginated preface; Jean-Baptiste-Jacques Elie de Beaumont, Discours sur le patriotisme dans la monarchie (Bordeaux, 1777), 9.
104. Pierre-Laurent Buirette de Belloy, Le sie`ge de Calais (Leyden, 1765), 48-49. See Acomb, Anglophobia, 55-59, for a representative interpretation of the play.
105. See, for instance, Acomb, Anglophobia, 55.
106. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux; Lesuire, esp 61.
107. The evidence for this assertion will be discussed in Chapter 3.
108. See Bernard Cottret, ed. , Bolingbroke's Political Writings: The Conservative En-
lightenment (New York, 1997).
109. See on this subject Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, esp. 1-47.
238
Notes to Pages 46-48
? 110.
Colley, Britons (see Intro. , n. 26), 36; Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 28); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995). Jeremy Black, however, argues against taking the conclusion too far in "Confessional State or Elect Nation? Religion and Identity in Eighteenth-Century England," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism and National Identity, 53-74. T. H. Breen, "Ideology and Nationalism on the Eve of the American Revolution: Revisions Once More in Need of Revising," Journal of American History, LXXXIV/1 (1997), 13-39, emphasizes that Britain's exclusionary nationalism could even be directed at its own colonists in North America.
Johann Georg Zimmermann, Vom Nationalstolze (Zurich, 1768), 177. The book was published in at least four editions and translated into both English and French.
See Colley, esp. 1-54; Newman, esp. 49-120; Wilson, The Sense of the People, 140-65.
James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1981).
Colley, 11-54.
Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, 109-18, quotes from 115, 112.
See Lionel Gossman, Medievalism and the Ideologies of the Enlightenment: The World and Work of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (Baltimore, 1968). See also be- low, Chapter 5.
Again belying Maurizio Viroli's claim that the "language of patriotism" had a single, essential meaning. See Viroli, For Love of Country, 1-2.
The English language, of course, has no real equivalent of patrie; "fatherland" and "motherland" are almost always used in reference to foreign countries. Nonetheless, the phrase "love of country" does convey much the same sense as "amour de la patrie. "
Colley, Britons, 29-33. On the Netherlands, see G. Groenhuis, De Predikanten: De sociale positie van de gereformeerde predikanten in de Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden voor 1700 (Groningen, 1977), 77-86; Gorski, "The Mosaic Moment," 1434-52. In general on this theme, see William R. Hutchison and Hartmut Lehmann, eds. , Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism (Minneapolis, 1994).
See Tony Claydon and Ian McBride, "The Trials of the Chosen Peoples," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism, 13-15.
On English patriotism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, see Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood (see Intro. , n. 28); Greenfeld, Nationalism, 27-87; Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer, The Great Arch: English State Forma- tion as Cultural Revolution (Oxford, 1985), 55-71, and William Hunt, "Civic Chivalry and the English Civil War," in Anthony Grafton and Ann Blair, eds. ,
111.
112. 113.
114. 115. 116.
Notes to Pages 46-48
117. 118.
119.
120. 121.
Notes to Pages 48-54 239
? The Transmission of Culture in Early Modern Europe (Philadelphia, 1990),
204-37.
122. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, 463 (bk. XXIV, ch. 5).
2. The Politics of Patriotism
1. Henri-Franc? ois d'Aguesseau, "De l'amour de la patrie" (1715), in Oeuvres, 13 vols. (Paris, 1759), I, 205-13, quote from 208.
2. Aulard, Le patriotisme franc? ais (see Ch. 1, n. 81), 27. Similar, if more muted opinions are expressed by Church, "France," 63-4 (see Ch. 1, n. 46), and Philippe Contamine, "Mourir pour la Patrie: Xe-XXe sie`cle," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire (see Intro. , n. 33), pt. II, III, 31.
3. Understandably enough, perhaps, since Aulard initially made the pronounce- ment in a public lecture during World War I, when the historical continuity of patriotism was a matter of more than academic interest.
4. To take just one example, in November of 1730, when a group of obstreper- ous barristers claimed that the king was bound to his subjects by contract, d'Aguesseau himself insisted on drafting the royal declaration that con- demned their offending document to the flame, and threatened the signato- ries with dire penalties unless they formally retracted. See Bell, Lawyers and Citizens (see Ch. 1, n. 12), 92-3. D'Aguesseau's arre^t de conseil can be found in Bibliothe`que Nationale, Cabinet des Manuscrits, Fonds Joly de Fleury 97, fols. 281-82. On d'Aguesseau in general, see most recently Storez, Le chancelier Henri-Franc? ois d'Aguesseau (see Ch. 1, n. 45). Notes to Pages 48-54
5.
D'Aguesseau never mentioned the king by name and insisted that whatever Louis's failings, his subjects suffered from them as well.
6. The only real predecessor I can find for d'Aguesseau in this respect is Soanen, in "Sur l'amour de la patrie" (see Intro. , n. 36).
7. D'Aguesseau, 207-8.
8. Ibid. , 211.
9. See Viroli, For Love of Country (see Intro. , n. 68), 18-62.
10. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, L'ancien re? gime, De Louis XIII a` Louis XV, 2 vols. (Paris, 1991), II, 7.
11. The chancellor never engaged in open theological debate and never made any public profession of faith, but as Storez shows (535-48), his sympathy for and acceptance of Jansenist ideas was obvious.
12. See Storez, 197-236.
13. Bibliothe`que de Port-Royal, Collection Le Paige, 449.
14. D'Aguesseau, 211-12.
15. Among these studies are Aulard, Le patriotisme; Church, "France"; Clive
Emsley, "Nationalist Rhetoric and Nationalist Sentiment in Revolutionary
240 Notes to Pages 54-55
? France," in Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy, eds. , Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution (London, 1988), 39-52; Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46); Godechot, "Nation, patrie" (see Intro. , n. 22); Greenfeld, Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 21); Jean-Yves Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale (see Ch. 1, n. 88); Guiomar, La nation entre l'histoire et la raison (see Intro. , n. 18); Norman Hampson, "La patrie," in Colin Lucas, ed. , The Political Culture of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1988), 125-37; Hyslop, French Nationalism in 1789 (see Intro. , n. 22); Hans Kohn, Prelude to Nation States: The French and German Experience, 1789-1815 (New York, 1967); W. Krauss, "'Patriote,' 'patriotique,' 'patriotisme' a` la fin de l'Ancien Re? gime," in W. H. Barber, ed. , The Age of the Enlightenment (London, 1967), 387-94; Jean Lestocquoy, Histoire du patriotisme en France des origines a` nos jours (Paris, 1968); Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77); O'Brien, "Nationalism" (see Ch. 1, n. 2); Robert Palmer, "The National Idea in France before the Revolution," Journal of the History of Ideas, I (1940), 95-111; Boyd Shafer, "Bourgeois Nationalism in the Pam- phlets on the Eve of the French Revolution," Journal of Modern History, X (1938), 31-50; Michel Vovelle, "Entre cosmopolitisme et xe? nophobie: Patrie, nation, re? publique universelle dans les ide? ologies de la Re? volution franc? aise," in Michael O'Dea and Kevin Whelan, eds. , Nations and Nationalisms: France, Britain and Ireland and the Eighteenth-Century Context (Oxford, 1995), 11- 26. See also the following dissertations: Dupuy, "Gene`se de la patrie moderne" (see Intro. , n. 33); Elie-Lefebvre, "Le de? bat" (see Ch. 1, n. 80); Clarke Garrett, "French Nationalism on the Eve of the French Revolution," Ph. D.
Notes to Pages 54-55 diss. , University of Wisconsin (1961).
16. Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais (see Intro. , n. 33), esp. 1-15,
491-96. The reason may be that Dziembowski focuses on the patrie; the con- cept of the nation, by contrast, owed more of its importance to internal poli- tics.
17. Jean Egret's Louis XV et l'opposition parlementaire (Paris, 1970) is now badly out of date, but remains the most general survey of the parlements in the eighteenth century. Among more recent works, see particularly Campbell, Power and Politics (see Ch. 1, n. 45); Van Kley, The Damiens Affair (see Intro. , n. 32); Julian Swann, Politics and the Parlement of Paris under Louis XV, 1754- 1774 (Cambridge, 1995); Durand Echeverria, The Maupeou Revolution: A Study in the History of Libertarianism, France, 1770-1774 (Baton Rouge, 1985); and Bailey Stone, The French Parlements and the Crisis of the Old Re- gime (Chapel Hill, 1986).
18. See most recently Bell, Lawyers and Citizens, and Sarah Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs: The Causes Ce? le`bres of Prerevolutionary France (Berkeley, 1993).
19. See Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 38-66.
Notes to Pages 55-58 241
? 20. Works emphasizing tradition and continuity in parlementaire history are Swann, Politics, and John Rogister, Louis XV and the Parlement of Paris, 1737- 55 (Cambridge, 1995). See also David A. Bell, "How (and How Not) to Write Histoire e? ve? nementielle: Recent Work on Eighteenth-Century French Politics," French Historical Studies, XIX/4 (1996), 1169-89.
21. See Robert Darnton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Cam- bridge, Mass. , 1982), 167-208.
22. [Jacob-Nicolas Moreau], Le Moniteur franc? ois, 2 vols. (Avignon, 1760), I, 14. See also Jacob-Nicolas Moreau, Mes souvenirs, Camille Hermelin, ed. , 2 vols. (Paris, 1898), esp. I, 57-62; Baker, Inventing (see Intro. , n. 17), 61-5; Dieter Gembicki, Histoire et politique a` la fin de l'ancien re? gime: Jacob-Nicolas Moreau (1717-1803) (Geneva, 1976); Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme, esp. 60-7.
23. Thus Keith Baker identifies the early 1750s as the moment when French poli- tics broke out of the "absolutist mold. " Baker, Inventing, 170. See also, in gen- eral, Van Kley, The Damiens Affair.
24. See in general on this literature, Shanti Marie Singham, "'A Conspiracy of Twenty Million Frenchmen': Public Opinion, Patriotism, and the Assault on Absolutism during the Maupeou Years, 1770-1775," Ph. D. diss. , Princeton University (1991), and Echeverria, The Maupeou Revolution, esp. 37-122.
25. On the vicissitudes of the concept of public opinion, which has received enormous attention in the last decade, see above all Ozouf, "L'opinion publique" (see Ch. 1, n. 16), and Baker, Inventing, 167-99. Notes to Pages 55-58
26. Henri de Boulainvilliers, Etat de la France, 2 vols. (London, 1727), I, 15-49.
27. See Rene? e Simon, Henry de Boulainviller [sic]: Historien, politique, philosophe, astrologue: 1658-1722 (Paris, 1941); Paul Vernie`re, Spinoza et la pense? e franc? aise avant la Re? volution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1954), I, 306-22. The most recent biography, and the most sophisticated in its study of Boulainvilliers' political writings (even if it does not do enough to integrate his religious and political thought) is Harold A. Ellis, Boulainvilliers and the French Monarchy: Aristo-
cratic Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, 1988).
28. Ellis, 78, and more generally, 57-91.
29. For an excellent overview of these arguments see Wright, "National Sover-
eignty and the General Will" (see Intro. , n. 69). The works had a wide reader- ship as shown by the new research on eighteenth-century French political culture cited above in Intro. , n. 32. See particularly Chartier, Cultural Origins, and Van Kley, The Damiens Affair.
30. For the fullest discussion of this material, see Bickart, Les parlements (see Intro. , n. 45), and Daniel Carroll Joynes, "Jansenists and Ideologues: Opposi- tion Theory in the Parlement of Paris (1750-1775)," Ph. D. diss. , University of Chicago (1981).
242
Notes to Pages 58-60
? 31.
32.
The quotes are from the controversial legal brief that prompted d'Aguesseau's comments on public opinion, [Franc? ois de Maraimberg], Me? moire pour les Sieurs Samson Cure? d'Olivet, Coue? t cure? de Darvoi, Gaucher chanoine de Jargeau, Dioce`se d'Orle? ans (Paris, 1730), 3. At least 3,000 copies of the brief were circulated. On this text and the controversy surrounding it, see Bell, Lawyers and Citizens, 91-104.
Parlements of Rouen, Paris (twice) and Besanc? on, quoted in Bickart, Les parlements, 54. In general on the phenomenon, see Bickart, 71-142, and more recently, Joynes, "Jansenists and Ideologues"; and Van Kley, The Damiens Af- fair, 166-225. The same strategists promoted the theory of the "union des classes," according to which the individual provincial parlements each formed a part of a larger national parlement. On the newspapers, which were the principal independent sources of news in France before the 1760s, see Popkin, News and Politics, and his "The Pre-Revolutionary Origins of Revo- lutionary Journalism" (see Ch. 1, n. 58).
[Louis-Adrien Le Paige], Lettres historiques sur les fonctions essentielles du Parlement, sur les droits de Pairs, et sur les lois fondamentales du Royaume, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1753-54); and his, Lettre sur les lits de justice (n. p. , 1756). Jacques-Be? nigne Bossuet, Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scrip- ture, trans. and ed. Patrick Riley (Cambridge, 1990), 16.
Jean-Baptiste Dubos, Histoire critique de l'e? tablissement de la Monarchie franc? aise dans les Gaules (Amsterdam, 1735).
Jules Flammermont, ed. , Remontrances du Parlement de Paris au XVIIIe sie`cle, 3 vols. (Paris, 1888), II, 186.
"The Session of the Scourging," in Keith Michael Baker, ed. , The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Chicago, 1987), 47-50, quote from 49.
See Bickart, 68-70.
Paul A. Friedland, "Representation and Revolution: The Theatricality of Poli- tics and the Politics of Theater in France, 1789-1794," Ph. D. diss. , University of California, Berkeley (1995); Baker, Inventing, 224-51. Friedland likens the process at one point to Catholic notions of transsubstantiation (105). Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (see Intro. , n. 41), 544.
For example, see the following works: Michel Desjardins, Le patriotisme (n. p.
This point is made by Sahlins, "Fictions of a Catholic France. "
See Godechot, "Nation, patrie, nationalisme et patriotisme" (see Intro. , n. 22), 486; Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale: Nation, repre? sentation, proprie? te? (Paris, 1974), 31; Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 5; quote from Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46), 76.
See the discussion of these points by Pierre Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77), esp. 802.
Victor de Riquetti de Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, ou traite? de la population, ed. Rouxel (Paris, 1883). On the enormous popularity of the book in the 1760s, see vi. Mirabeau, often identified with the physiocrats, was the father of the revolutionary orator.
On his use of "civilization," see Moras, Ursprung, 5; on his use of "regenera- tion," see Morrissey, L'empereur a` la barbe fleurie, 268. D'Alembert had used the originally theological concept of "regeneration" in the preliminary dis- course to the Encyclope? die, but far more sparingly. See Alyssa R. Sepinwall, "Regenerating France, Regenerating the World: The Abbe? Gre? goire and the French Revolution, 1750-1831," Ph. D. diss. , Stanford University (1998), 83- 87.
Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, 247-68.
See esp. ibid. , 316-29, on the question of whether France itself had yet reached the point of decrepitude.
Robert-Martin Lesuire, Les sauvages de l'Europe (Berlin, 1760), quote from 41. The novel had sufficient success to be reprinted during France and England's next war (Paris, 1780); it was even translated into English (The Savages of Eu- rope, London, 1764).
Ibid. , 22, 35-9, 126, 42.
C. -S. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux (Paris, 1763, repr. 1771), 5; Jean-Bernard Leblanc and La Coste, quoted in Grieder, Anglomania (see Intro. , n. 55), 42; Lettre d'un jeune homme (see Intro. , n. 70), 44; Louis-Charles Fougeret de
Notes to Pages 44-46 237
? Montbron, Pre? servatif contre l'Anglomanie ("Minorca," 1757), 51; Edmond- Jean-Franc? ois Barbier, Chronique de la re? gence et du re`gne de Louis XV, 7 vols. (Paris, 1885), III, 273. In general, see Grieder, Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme; and Frances Acomb, Anglophobia in France: An Essay in the His- tory of Constitutionalism and Nationalism (Durham, 1950).
97. Acomb's Anglophobia, which focuses on attitudes toward the English consti- tution, concludes that "Anglophile liberalism" declined towards the end of the old regime. Grieder, whose Anglomania takes in a broader spectrum of cultural influences, argues for the persistence of a dialectic between Anglo- phobia and Anglomania, as does Dziembowski in Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais.
98. See also Edmond Dziembowski, "Les de? buts d'un publiciste au service de la monarchie: L'activite? litte? raire de Jacob-Nicolas Moreau pendant la guerre de sept ans," Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 4 (1995), 305-22; J. Labourdette, Vergennes, 205-8 (see Intro. , n. 70).
99. For an overview of this literature, see Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought: Its Form and Function in the Ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694-1790 (South Bend, 1977); Gerd van den Heuvel, "Cosmopolite, cosmopolitisme," in Reichart and Schmitt, eds. , Handbuch politisch-sozialer Grundbegriffe, VI (Munich, 1986), 41-55. Notes to Pages 44-46
100. Ferlus, Le patriotisme, 29; abbe? Baudeau, quoted in Elie-Lefebvre, 170; Journal encyclope? dique, par une socie? te? de gens de lettres, I (Jan. 15, 1756), 31; ibid. , 30; Apologie du caracte`re des anglois et des franc? ois (n. p. , 1726), 65.
101. Elie-Lefebvre, 169-81; Montesquieu, Cahiers, 1716-1755, Bernard Grasset, ed. (Paris, 1941), 9-10.
102. Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, 12, 431.
103. Discours sur le patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 56), 10; A. J. de Baptestein de
Mouliers Rupe, Me? moire sur un moyen facile et infallible de faire renai^tre le patriotisme en France, dans toutes les classes des citoyens, comme dans les deux sexes (Amsterdam, 1789), 1; Le patriotisme, poe? me, 6; Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray, Dictionnaire social et patriotique (Amsterdam, 1770), unpaginated preface; Jean-Baptiste-Jacques Elie de Beaumont, Discours sur le patriotisme dans la monarchie (Bordeaux, 1777), 9.
104. Pierre-Laurent Buirette de Belloy, Le sie`ge de Calais (Leyden, 1765), 48-49. See Acomb, Anglophobia, 55-59, for a representative interpretation of the play.
105. See, for instance, Acomb, Anglophobia, 55.
106. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux; Lesuire, esp 61.
107. The evidence for this assertion will be discussed in Chapter 3.
108. See Bernard Cottret, ed. , Bolingbroke's Political Writings: The Conservative En-
lightenment (New York, 1997).
109. See on this subject Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, esp. 1-47.
238
Notes to Pages 46-48
? 110.
Colley, Britons (see Intro. , n. 26), 36; Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 28); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995). Jeremy Black, however, argues against taking the conclusion too far in "Confessional State or Elect Nation? Religion and Identity in Eighteenth-Century England," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism and National Identity, 53-74. T. H. Breen, "Ideology and Nationalism on the Eve of the American Revolution: Revisions Once More in Need of Revising," Journal of American History, LXXXIV/1 (1997), 13-39, emphasizes that Britain's exclusionary nationalism could even be directed at its own colonists in North America.
Johann Georg Zimmermann, Vom Nationalstolze (Zurich, 1768), 177. The book was published in at least four editions and translated into both English and French.
See Colley, esp. 1-54; Newman, esp. 49-120; Wilson, The Sense of the People, 140-65.
James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1981).
Colley, 11-54.
Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, 109-18, quotes from 115, 112.
See Lionel Gossman, Medievalism and the Ideologies of the Enlightenment: The World and Work of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (Baltimore, 1968). See also be- low, Chapter 5.
Again belying Maurizio Viroli's claim that the "language of patriotism" had a single, essential meaning. See Viroli, For Love of Country, 1-2.
The English language, of course, has no real equivalent of patrie; "fatherland" and "motherland" are almost always used in reference to foreign countries. Nonetheless, the phrase "love of country" does convey much the same sense as "amour de la patrie. "
Colley, Britons, 29-33. On the Netherlands, see G. Groenhuis, De Predikanten: De sociale positie van de gereformeerde predikanten in de Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden voor 1700 (Groningen, 1977), 77-86; Gorski, "The Mosaic Moment," 1434-52. In general on this theme, see William R. Hutchison and Hartmut Lehmann, eds. , Many Are Chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism (Minneapolis, 1994).
See Tony Claydon and Ian McBride, "The Trials of the Chosen Peoples," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism, 13-15.
On English patriotism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, see Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood (see Intro. , n. 28); Greenfeld, Nationalism, 27-87; Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer, The Great Arch: English State Forma- tion as Cultural Revolution (Oxford, 1985), 55-71, and William Hunt, "Civic Chivalry and the English Civil War," in Anthony Grafton and Ann Blair, eds. ,
111.
112. 113.
114. 115. 116.
Notes to Pages 46-48
117. 118.
119.
120. 121.
Notes to Pages 48-54 239
? The Transmission of Culture in Early Modern Europe (Philadelphia, 1990),
204-37.
122. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, 463 (bk. XXIV, ch. 5).
2. The Politics of Patriotism
1. Henri-Franc? ois d'Aguesseau, "De l'amour de la patrie" (1715), in Oeuvres, 13 vols. (Paris, 1759), I, 205-13, quote from 208.
2. Aulard, Le patriotisme franc? ais (see Ch. 1, n. 81), 27. Similar, if more muted opinions are expressed by Church, "France," 63-4 (see Ch. 1, n. 46), and Philippe Contamine, "Mourir pour la Patrie: Xe-XXe sie`cle," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire (see Intro. , n. 33), pt. II, III, 31.
3. Understandably enough, perhaps, since Aulard initially made the pronounce- ment in a public lecture during World War I, when the historical continuity of patriotism was a matter of more than academic interest.
4. To take just one example, in November of 1730, when a group of obstreper- ous barristers claimed that the king was bound to his subjects by contract, d'Aguesseau himself insisted on drafting the royal declaration that con- demned their offending document to the flame, and threatened the signato- ries with dire penalties unless they formally retracted. See Bell, Lawyers and Citizens (see Ch. 1, n. 12), 92-3. D'Aguesseau's arre^t de conseil can be found in Bibliothe`que Nationale, Cabinet des Manuscrits, Fonds Joly de Fleury 97, fols. 281-82. On d'Aguesseau in general, see most recently Storez, Le chancelier Henri-Franc? ois d'Aguesseau (see Ch. 1, n. 45). Notes to Pages 48-54
5.
D'Aguesseau never mentioned the king by name and insisted that whatever Louis's failings, his subjects suffered from them as well.
6. The only real predecessor I can find for d'Aguesseau in this respect is Soanen, in "Sur l'amour de la patrie" (see Intro. , n. 36).
7. D'Aguesseau, 207-8.
8. Ibid. , 211.
9. See Viroli, For Love of Country (see Intro. , n. 68), 18-62.
10. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, L'ancien re? gime, De Louis XIII a` Louis XV, 2 vols. (Paris, 1991), II, 7.
11. The chancellor never engaged in open theological debate and never made any public profession of faith, but as Storez shows (535-48), his sympathy for and acceptance of Jansenist ideas was obvious.
12. See Storez, 197-236.
13. Bibliothe`que de Port-Royal, Collection Le Paige, 449.
14. D'Aguesseau, 211-12.
15. Among these studies are Aulard, Le patriotisme; Church, "France"; Clive
Emsley, "Nationalist Rhetoric and Nationalist Sentiment in Revolutionary
240 Notes to Pages 54-55
? France," in Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy, eds. , Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution (London, 1988), 39-52; Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46); Godechot, "Nation, patrie" (see Intro. , n. 22); Greenfeld, Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 21); Jean-Yves Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale (see Ch. 1, n. 88); Guiomar, La nation entre l'histoire et la raison (see Intro. , n. 18); Norman Hampson, "La patrie," in Colin Lucas, ed. , The Political Culture of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1988), 125-37; Hyslop, French Nationalism in 1789 (see Intro. , n. 22); Hans Kohn, Prelude to Nation States: The French and German Experience, 1789-1815 (New York, 1967); W. Krauss, "'Patriote,' 'patriotique,' 'patriotisme' a` la fin de l'Ancien Re? gime," in W. H. Barber, ed. , The Age of the Enlightenment (London, 1967), 387-94; Jean Lestocquoy, Histoire du patriotisme en France des origines a` nos jours (Paris, 1968); Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77); O'Brien, "Nationalism" (see Ch. 1, n. 2); Robert Palmer, "The National Idea in France before the Revolution," Journal of the History of Ideas, I (1940), 95-111; Boyd Shafer, "Bourgeois Nationalism in the Pam- phlets on the Eve of the French Revolution," Journal of Modern History, X (1938), 31-50; Michel Vovelle, "Entre cosmopolitisme et xe? nophobie: Patrie, nation, re? publique universelle dans les ide? ologies de la Re? volution franc? aise," in Michael O'Dea and Kevin Whelan, eds. , Nations and Nationalisms: France, Britain and Ireland and the Eighteenth-Century Context (Oxford, 1995), 11- 26. See also the following dissertations: Dupuy, "Gene`se de la patrie moderne" (see Intro. , n. 33); Elie-Lefebvre, "Le de? bat" (see Ch. 1, n. 80); Clarke Garrett, "French Nationalism on the Eve of the French Revolution," Ph. D.
Notes to Pages 54-55 diss. , University of Wisconsin (1961).
16. Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais (see Intro. , n. 33), esp. 1-15,
491-96. The reason may be that Dziembowski focuses on the patrie; the con- cept of the nation, by contrast, owed more of its importance to internal poli- tics.
17. Jean Egret's Louis XV et l'opposition parlementaire (Paris, 1970) is now badly out of date, but remains the most general survey of the parlements in the eighteenth century. Among more recent works, see particularly Campbell, Power and Politics (see Ch. 1, n. 45); Van Kley, The Damiens Affair (see Intro. , n. 32); Julian Swann, Politics and the Parlement of Paris under Louis XV, 1754- 1774 (Cambridge, 1995); Durand Echeverria, The Maupeou Revolution: A Study in the History of Libertarianism, France, 1770-1774 (Baton Rouge, 1985); and Bailey Stone, The French Parlements and the Crisis of the Old Re- gime (Chapel Hill, 1986).
18. See most recently Bell, Lawyers and Citizens, and Sarah Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs: The Causes Ce? le`bres of Prerevolutionary France (Berkeley, 1993).
19. See Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 38-66.
Notes to Pages 55-58 241
? 20. Works emphasizing tradition and continuity in parlementaire history are Swann, Politics, and John Rogister, Louis XV and the Parlement of Paris, 1737- 55 (Cambridge, 1995). See also David A. Bell, "How (and How Not) to Write Histoire e? ve? nementielle: Recent Work on Eighteenth-Century French Politics," French Historical Studies, XIX/4 (1996), 1169-89.
21. See Robert Darnton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Cam- bridge, Mass. , 1982), 167-208.
22. [Jacob-Nicolas Moreau], Le Moniteur franc? ois, 2 vols. (Avignon, 1760), I, 14. See also Jacob-Nicolas Moreau, Mes souvenirs, Camille Hermelin, ed. , 2 vols. (Paris, 1898), esp. I, 57-62; Baker, Inventing (see Intro. , n. 17), 61-5; Dieter Gembicki, Histoire et politique a` la fin de l'ancien re? gime: Jacob-Nicolas Moreau (1717-1803) (Geneva, 1976); Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme, esp. 60-7.
23. Thus Keith Baker identifies the early 1750s as the moment when French poli- tics broke out of the "absolutist mold. " Baker, Inventing, 170. See also, in gen- eral, Van Kley, The Damiens Affair.
24. See in general on this literature, Shanti Marie Singham, "'A Conspiracy of Twenty Million Frenchmen': Public Opinion, Patriotism, and the Assault on Absolutism during the Maupeou Years, 1770-1775," Ph. D. diss. , Princeton University (1991), and Echeverria, The Maupeou Revolution, esp. 37-122.
25. On the vicissitudes of the concept of public opinion, which has received enormous attention in the last decade, see above all Ozouf, "L'opinion publique" (see Ch. 1, n. 16), and Baker, Inventing, 167-99. Notes to Pages 55-58
26. Henri de Boulainvilliers, Etat de la France, 2 vols. (London, 1727), I, 15-49.
27. See Rene? e Simon, Henry de Boulainviller [sic]: Historien, politique, philosophe, astrologue: 1658-1722 (Paris, 1941); Paul Vernie`re, Spinoza et la pense? e franc? aise avant la Re? volution, 2 vols. (Paris, 1954), I, 306-22. The most recent biography, and the most sophisticated in its study of Boulainvilliers' political writings (even if it does not do enough to integrate his religious and political thought) is Harold A. Ellis, Boulainvilliers and the French Monarchy: Aristo-
cratic Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, 1988).
28. Ellis, 78, and more generally, 57-91.
29. For an excellent overview of these arguments see Wright, "National Sover-
eignty and the General Will" (see Intro. , n. 69). The works had a wide reader- ship as shown by the new research on eighteenth-century French political culture cited above in Intro. , n. 32. See particularly Chartier, Cultural Origins, and Van Kley, The Damiens Affair.
30. For the fullest discussion of this material, see Bickart, Les parlements (see Intro. , n. 45), and Daniel Carroll Joynes, "Jansenists and Ideologues: Opposi- tion Theory in the Parlement of Paris (1750-1775)," Ph. D. diss. , University of Chicago (1981).
242
Notes to Pages 58-60
? 31.
32.
The quotes are from the controversial legal brief that prompted d'Aguesseau's comments on public opinion, [Franc? ois de Maraimberg], Me? moire pour les Sieurs Samson Cure? d'Olivet, Coue? t cure? de Darvoi, Gaucher chanoine de Jargeau, Dioce`se d'Orle? ans (Paris, 1730), 3. At least 3,000 copies of the brief were circulated. On this text and the controversy surrounding it, see Bell, Lawyers and Citizens, 91-104.
Parlements of Rouen, Paris (twice) and Besanc? on, quoted in Bickart, Les parlements, 54. In general on the phenomenon, see Bickart, 71-142, and more recently, Joynes, "Jansenists and Ideologues"; and Van Kley, The Damiens Af- fair, 166-225. The same strategists promoted the theory of the "union des classes," according to which the individual provincial parlements each formed a part of a larger national parlement. On the newspapers, which were the principal independent sources of news in France before the 1760s, see Popkin, News and Politics, and his "The Pre-Revolutionary Origins of Revo- lutionary Journalism" (see Ch. 1, n. 58).
[Louis-Adrien Le Paige], Lettres historiques sur les fonctions essentielles du Parlement, sur les droits de Pairs, et sur les lois fondamentales du Royaume, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1753-54); and his, Lettre sur les lits de justice (n. p. , 1756). Jacques-Be? nigne Bossuet, Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scrip- ture, trans. and ed. Patrick Riley (Cambridge, 1990), 16.
Jean-Baptiste Dubos, Histoire critique de l'e? tablissement de la Monarchie franc? aise dans les Gaules (Amsterdam, 1735).
Jules Flammermont, ed. , Remontrances du Parlement de Paris au XVIIIe sie`cle, 3 vols. (Paris, 1888), II, 186.
"The Session of the Scourging," in Keith Michael Baker, ed. , The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Chicago, 1987), 47-50, quote from 49.
See Bickart, 68-70.
Paul A. Friedland, "Representation and Revolution: The Theatricality of Poli- tics and the Politics of Theater in France, 1789-1794," Ph. D. diss. , University of California, Berkeley (1995); Baker, Inventing, 224-51. Friedland likens the process at one point to Catholic notions of transsubstantiation (105). Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (see Intro. , n. 41), 544.
For example, see the following works: Michel Desjardins, Le patriotisme (n. p.
