They are a savage
people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers;
for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.
people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers;
for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.
Strabo
Towards the north there are many forks which branch away from the
Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus, for there the mountain had
this name, and includes Sophene in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus
and the Taurus.
Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates, along the
Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north a large mountain with
many branches, one of which is called Paryadres,[1036] another the
Moschic mountains, and others by other names. The Moschic mountains
comprehend the whole of Armenians as far as the Iberians and Albanians.
Other mountains again rise towards the east above the Caspian Sea, and
extend as far as Media the Greater, and the Atropatian-Media. They call
all these parts of the mountains Parachoathras, as well as those which
extend to the Caspian Gates, and those still farther above towards the
east, which are contiguous to Asia. The following are the names of the
mountains towards the north.
The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates, extending
towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,[1037] at their
commencement have the name of Taurus, which separates Sophene and the
rest of Armenia from Mesopotamia, but some writers call them the
Gordyæan mountains. [1038] Among these is Mount Masius,[1039] which is
situated above Nisibis,[1040] and Tigranocerta. [1041] It then becomes
more elevated, and is called Niphates. [1042] Somewhere in this part on
the southern side of the mountainous chain are the sources of the
Tigris. Then the ridge of mountains continuing to extend from the
Niphates forms the mountain Zagrius, which separates Media and
Babylonia. After the Zagrius follows above Babylonia the mountainous
range of the Elymæi and Parætaceni, and above Media that of the Cossæi.
In the middle of these branches are situated Media and Armenia, which
comprise many mountains, and many mountain plains, as well as plains and
large valleys. Numerous small tribes live around among the mountains,
who are for the most part robbers.
We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to which belong the
Caspian Gates.
5. In our opinion these nations may be considered as situated to the
north, since they are within the Taurus. But Eratosthenes, having
divided Asia into southern and northern portions, and what he calls
seals, (or sections,)[1043] designating some as northern, others as
southern, makes the Caspian Gates the boundary of both climates. He
might without any impropriety have represented the more southern parts
of the Caspian Gates as in southern Asia, among which are Media and
Armenia, and the parts more to the north than the Caspian Gates in
northern Asia, which might be the case according to different
descriptions of the country. But perhaps Eratosthenes did not attend to
the circumstance, that there [CAS. 523] is no part of Armenia nor of
Media towards the south on the other side of the Taurus.
CHAPTER XIII.
1. Media is divided into two parts, one of which is called the Greater
Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,[1044] a large city containing the royal
seat of the Median empire. This palace the Parthians continue to occupy
even at this time. Here their kings pass the summer, for the air of
Media is cool. Their winter residence is at Seleucia, on the Tigris,
near Babylon.
The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name from Atropatus,
a chief who prevented this country, which is a part of Greater Media,
from being subjected to the dominion of the Macedonians. When he was
made king he established the independence of this country; his
successors continue to the present day, and have at different times
contracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and Parthia.
2. Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane[1045] towards the
east, towards the west on the Greater Media, and on both towards the
north; towards the south it is contiguous to the people living about the
recess of the Hyrcanian Sea, and to Matiane.
According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable, since it
can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.
It contains a lake called Spauta,[1046] (Kapauta,) in which salt
effloresces, and is consolidated. The salt occasions itching and pain,
but oil is a cure for both, and sweet water restores the colour of
clothes, which have the appearance of being burnt,[1047] when they have
been immersed in the lake by ignorant persons for the purpose of washing
them.
They have powerful neighbours in the Armenians and Parthians, by whom
they are frequently plundered; they resist however, and recover what has
been taken away, as they recovered Symbace[1048] from the Armenians, who
were defeated by the Romans, and they themselves became the friends of
Cæsar. They at the same time endeavour to conciliate the Parthians.
3. The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain; the winter
palace[1049] is in Vera, a strong fortress which Antony besieged in his
expedition against the Parthians. The last is distant from the Araxes,
which separates Armenia and Atropatene, 2400 stadia, according to
Dellius, the friend of Antony, who wrote an account of the expedition of
Antony against the Parthians, which he himself accompanied, and in which
he held a command.
The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards the north
is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the mountain tribes of
Cadusii, Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other similar nations, who are
migratory, and robbers. These people are scattered over the Zagrus and
Niphates. The Curtii in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the
Amardi,) and those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present,
have the same kind of character.
4. The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior in number to
that of the Ariani. They are very expert in throwing the javelin. In the
rocky places the soldiers engage in battle on foot, instead of on their
horses. The expedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the
nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide, Artavasdes,
king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made his adviser, and master of
his intentions respecting the war, when at the same time that prince was
contriving a plan for his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but
too late; the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the
Romans, in conjunction with another person; he made the march from the
Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of Atropatene to exceed 8000
stadia, or double the distance of the direct course, [by leading the
army] over mountains, and places where there were no roads, and by a
circuitous route.
5. [CAS. 524] The Greater Media anciently governed the whole of Asia,
after the overthrow of the Syrian empire: but afterwards, in the time of
Astyages, the Medes were deprived of this extensive sovereignty by Cyrus
and the Persians, yet they retained much of their ancient importance.
Ecbatana was the winter (royal? ) residence[1050] of the Persian kings,
as it was of the Macedonian princes, who overthrew the Persian empire,
and got possession of Syria. It still continues to serve the same
purpose, and affords security to the kings of Parthia.
6. Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the mountains of the
Cossæi, a predatory tribe. They once furnished the Elymæi, whose allies
they were in the war against the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000
archers. Nearchus says that there were four robber tribes; the Mardi,
who were contiguous to the Persians; the Uxii and Elymæi, who were on
the borders of the Persians and Susii; and the Cossæi, on those of the
Medes; that all of them exacted tribute from the kings; that the Cossæi
received presents, when the king, having passed his summer at Ecbatana
went down to Babylonia; that Alexander attacked them in the winter time,
and repressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the east by
these nations, and by the Parætaceni, who are contiguous to the
Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers; on the north by the
Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian Sea, and by other nations, whom we
have just enumerated; on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the
ancients called Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies
Massabatica, which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymæa;
on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Armenians.
There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Macedonians, as
Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagæ, and Rhaga itself, founded by
Nicator, who called it Europus, and the Parthians Arsacia, situated
about 500 stadia to the south of the Caspian Gates, according to
Apollodorus of Artemita.
7. The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is cold; such
are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places about Rhagæ and the
Caspian Gates, and the northern parts in general extending thence as far
as Matiane and Armenia.
The country below the Caspian Gates consists of flat grounds and
valleys. It is very fertile, and produces everything except the olive,
or if it grows anywhere it does not yield oil, and is dry. The country
is peculiarly adapted, as well as Armenia, for breeding horses. There is
a meadow tract called Hippobotus, which is traversed by travellers on
their way from Persia and Babylonia to the Caspian Gates. Here, it is
said, fifty thousand mares were pastured in the time of the Persians,
and were the king’s stud. The Nesæan horses, the best and largest in the
king’s province, were of this breed, according to some writers, but
according to others they came from Armenia. Their shape is peculiar, as
is that of the Parthian horses, compared with those of Greece and others
in our country.
The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses we call
peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in Media in great
abundance. The country produces Silphium,[1051] from which is obtained
the Medic juice, much inferior to the Cyrenaic, but sometimes it excels
the latter, which may be accounted for by the difference of places, or
from a change the plant may undergo, or from the mode of extracting and
preparing the juice so as to continue good when laid by for use.
8. Such then is the nature of the country with respect to magnitude; its
length and breadth are nearly equal. The greatest breadth
(length? )[1052] however seems to be that reckoned from the pass across
the Zagrus, which is called the Median Gate, to the Caspian Gates,
through the country of Sigriana, 4100 stadia.
The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and wealth of the
country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians yearly, in addition to a
tribute in silver, 1500 horses, 2000 mules, and 50,000 sheep, and the
Medes contributed nearly double this amount.
9. Many of their customs are the same as those of the Armenians, from
the similarity of the countries which they inhabit. The Medes however
were the first to communicate them to the Armenians, and still before
that time to the Persians, who were their masters, and successors in the
empire of Asia.
[CAS. 526] The Persian stole, as it is now called, the pursuit of
archery and horsemanship, the court paid to their kings, their attire,
and veneration fitting for gods paid by the subjects to the
prince,--these the Persians derived from the Medes. That this is the
fact appears chiefly from their dress. A tiara, a citaris, a hat,[1053]
tunics with sleeves reaching to the hands, and trowsers, are proper to
be worn in cold and northerly places, such as those in Media, but they
are not by any means adapted to inhabitants of the south. The Persians
had their principal settlements on the Gulf of Persia, being situated
more to the south than the Babylonians and the Susii. But after the
overthrow of the Medes they gained possession of some tracts of country
contiguous to Media. The custom however of the vanquished appeared to
the conquerors to be so noble, and appropriate to royal state, that
instead of nakedness or scanty clothing, they endured the use of the
feminine stole, and were entirely covered with dress to the feet.
10. Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she ruled in these
countries, introduced this kind of dress, and concealed her countenance
as often as she appeared in public in place of the king; that the
memorials of Jason are, the Jasonian heroa,[1054] held in great
reverence by the Barbarians, (besides a great mountain above the Caspian
Gates on the left hand, called Jasonium,) and that the memorials of
Medeia are the kind of dress, and the name of the country. Medus, her
son, is said to have been her successor in the kingdom, and the country
to have been called after his name. In agreement with this are the
Jasonia in Armenia, the name of the country, and many other
circumstances which we shall mention.
11. It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as king, but this
does not generally prevail, being confined to the mountain tribes. The
custom for the kings to have many wives is more general, it is found
among all the mountaineers also, but they are not permitted to have less
than five. In the same manner the women think it honourable for husbands
to have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if they
have less than five.
While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and mountainous
part is barren. The people subsist upon the produce of trees. They make
cakes of apples, sliced and dried, and bread of roasted almonds; they
express a wine from some kind of roots. They eat the flesh of wild
animals, and do not breed any tame animals. So much then respecting the
Medes. As to the laws and customs in common use throughout the whole of
Media, as they are the same as those of the Persians in consequence of
the establishment of the Persian empire, I shall speak of them when I
give an account of the latter nation.
CHAPTER XIV.
1. The southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Taurus, which
separates Armenia from the whole of the country situated between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is called Mesopotamia. The eastern
parts are contiguous to the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the
north are the range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the
Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The Caucasus
encircles these nations, and approaches close to the Armenians, the
Moschic and Colchic mountains, and extends as far as the country of the
people called Tibareni. On the west are these nations and the mountains
Paryadres and Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country
on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from Cappadocia and
Commagene.
2. The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Taurus, and flows at
first towards the west through Armenia, it then makes a bend to the
south, and intersects the Taurus between the Armenians, Cappadocians,
and Commageni. Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns
towards the winter sunrise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia
with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian Gulf.
Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost all of them
mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts which verge towards Media.
To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again in the country on
the other side of the Euphrates, occupied [CAS. 527] by the Commageni,
and Meliteni formed by the Euphrates, belongs Mount Masius, which is
situated on the south above the Mygdones in Mesopotamia, in whose
territory is Nisibis; on the northern parts is Sophene, lying between
the Masius and Anti-Taurus. Anti-Taurus begins from the Euphrates and
the Taurus, and terminates at the eastern parts of Armenia, enclosing
within it Sophene. It has on the other side Acilisene, which lies
between [Anti-]Taurus and the bed of the Euphrates before it turns to
the south. The royal city of Sophene is Carcathiocerta. [1055]
Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the Niphates, then
the Abus,[1056] from which flow both the Euphrates and the Araxes, the
former to the west, the latter to the east; then the Nibarus, which
extends as far as Media.
3. We have described the course of the Euphrates. The Araxes, after
running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes a bend towards the west
and north. It then first flows beside Azara, then by Artaxata,[1057] a
city of the Armenians; afterwards it passes through the plain of
Araxenus to discharge itself into the Caspian Sea.
4. There are many mountains in Armenia, and many mountain plains, in
which not even the vine grows. There are also many valleys, some are
moderately fertile, others are very productive, as the Araxenian plain,
through which the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and
empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene, which borders
upon Albania, and the river Cyrus; then Gogarene. All this district
abounds with products of the soil, cultivated fruit trees and
evergreens. It bears also the olive.
There is Phauene, (Phanenæ, Phasiana? ) a province of Armenia, Comisene,
and Orchistene, which furnishes large bodies of cavalry.
Chorzene[1058] and Cambysene are the most northerly countries, and
particularly subject to falls of snow. They are contiguous to the
Caucasian mountains, to Iberia, and Colchis. Here, they say, on the
passes over mountains, it frequently happens that whole companies of
persons have been overwhelmed in violent snow-storms. Travellers are
provided against such dangerous accidents with poles, which they force
upwards to the surface of the snow, for the purpose of breathing, and of
signifying their situation to other travellers who may come that way, so
that they may receive assistance, be extricated, and so escape alive.
They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow, which contain
good water, enveloped as in a coat; that animals are bred in the snow,
which Apollonides call scoleces,[1059] and Theophanes, thripes, and that
these hollow masses contain good water, which is obtained by breaking
open their coats or coverings. The generation of these animals is
supposed to be similar to that of the gnats, (or mosquitos,) from
flames, and the sparks in mines.
5. According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly a small country,
was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris, who had been generals of
Antiochus the Great, and at last, after his overthrow, when they became
kings, (the former of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene? ) Odomantis, and
some other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they
simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away portions of the
territory of the surrounding nations: from the Medes they took the
Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda; from the Iberians, the country at
the foot of the Paryadres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the
other side of the Cyrus; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynœci, Carenitis
and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Armenia, or are even parts of
it; from the Cataones, Acilisene,[1060] and the country about the
Anti-Taurus; from the Syrians, Taronitis;[1061] hence they all speak the
same language.
6. The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artaxiasata, [CAS.
529] built by Hannibal for the king Artaxias, and Arxata, both situated
on the Araxes; Arxata on the confines of Atropatia, and Artaxata near
the Araxenian plain; it is well inhabited, and the seat of the kings of
the country. It lies upon a peninsular elbow of land; the river
encircles the walls except at the isthmus, which is enclosed by a ditch
and rampart.
Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Tigranes and
Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and Olane. There were others
also upon the Euphrates. Ador, (Addon? ) the governor of the fortress,
occasioned the revolt of Artageræ, but the generals of Cæsar retook it
after a long siege, and destroyed the walls.
7. There are many rivers in the country. The most celebrated are the
Phasis and Lycus; they empty themselves into the Euxine; (Eratosthenes
instead of the Lycus mentions the Thermodon, but erroneously;) the Cyrus
and the Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris into
the Persian Gulf.
8. There are also large lakes in Armenia; one the Mantiane,[1062] which
word translated signifies Cyane, or Blue, the largest salt-water lake,
it is said, after the Palus Mæotis, extending as far as (Media-)
Atropatia. It has salt pans for the concretion of salt.
The next is Arsene,[1063] which is also called Thopitis. Its waters
contain nitre, and are used for cleaning and fulling clothes. It is
unfit by these qualities for drinking. The Tigris passes through this
lake[1064] after issuing from the mountainous country near the Niphates,
and by its rapidity keeps its stream unmixed with the water of the lake,
whence it has its name, for the Medes call an arrow, Tigris. This river
contains fish of various kinds, but the lake one kind only.
At the extremity of the lake the river falls into a deep cavity in the
earth. After pursuing a long course under-ground, it reappears in the
Chalonitis; thence it goes to Opis, and to the wall of Semiramis, as it
is called, leaving the Gordyæi[1065] and the whole of Mesopotamia on the
right hand. The Euphrates, on the contrary, has the same country on the
left. Having approached one another, and formed Mesopotamia, one
traverses Seleucia in its course to the Persian Gulf, the other Babylon,
as I have said in replying to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus.
9. There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,[1066] near Caballa.
Alexander sent Menon to the mines with a body of soldiers, but he was
strangled[1067] by the inhabitants of the country. There are other
mines, and also a mine of Sandyx as it is called, to which is given the
name of Armenian colour, it resembles the Calche. [1068]
This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this respect
to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nesæan horses, which the
kings of Persia used, is found here also; the satrap of Armenia used to
send annually to the king of Persia 20,000 foals at the time of the
festival of the Mithracina. Artavasdes, when he accompanied Antony in
his invasion of Media, exhibited, besides other bodies of cavalry, 6000
horse covered with complete armour drawn up in array.
Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians also, admire this
kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses covered with armour.
10. Of the riches and power of this country, this is no slight proof,
that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the father of Artavasdes, the
payment of 6000 talents of silver, he immediately distributed the money
among the Roman army, to each soldier 50 drachmæ, 1000 to a centurion,
and a talent to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.
11. Theophanes represents this as the size of the country; its breadth
to be 100 schœni, and its length double this number, reckoning the
schœnus at 40 stadia; but this computation exceeds the truth. It is
nearer the truth to take the [CAS. 530] length as he has given it, and
the breadth at one half, or a little more.
Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its power.
12. There exists an ancient account of the origin of this nation to the
following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thessalian city, which lies
between Pheræ and Larisa on the lake Bœbe, accompanied Jason, as we have
already said, in his expedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the
country had its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius
the Larisæan, persons who had accompanied the army of Alexander. Some of
the followers of Armenus settled in Acilisene, which was formerly
subject to the Sopheni; others in the Syspiritis, and spread as far as
Calachene and Adiabene, beyond the borders of Armenia.
The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessalian origin;
such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are called Thessalian; they
are fastened about the body with a girdle, and with a clasp on the
shoulder. The tragedians, for they required some additional decoration
of this kind, imitate the Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians
in particular, from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit
the most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afforded the
most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their theatrical
representations. The passion for riding and the care of horses
characterize the Thessalians, and are common to Armenians and Medes.
The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason: some of these
memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as Parmenio restored
the temple of Jason at Abdera.
13. It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called the Araxes
by this name on account of its resemblance to the Peneius, for the
Peneius had the name of Araxes from bursting through Tempe, and rending
(ἀπαράξαι) Ossa from Olympus. The Araxes also in Armenia, descending
from the mountains, is said to have spread itself in ancient times,
and to have overflowed the plains, like a sea, having no outlet; that
Jason, in imitation of what is to be seen at Tempe, made the opening
through which the water at present precipitates itself into the Caspian
Sea; that upon this the Araxenian plain, through which the river flows
to the cataract, became uncovered. This story which is told of the
river Araxes contains some probability; that of Herodotus[1069] none
whatever. For he says that, after flowing out of the country of the
Matiani, it is divided into forty rivers, and separates the Scythians
from the Bactrians. Callisthenes has followed Herodotus.
14. Some tribes of Ænianes are mentioned, some of whom settled in Vitia,
others above the Armenians beyond the Abus and the Nibarus. These latter
are branches of Taurus; the Abus is near the road which leads to
Ecbatana by the temple of Baris (Zaris? ).
Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparæ, or decapitators, are said
to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and Medes.
They are a savage
people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers;
for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.
I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is conjectured
from all the circumstances that the Medes and Armenians are allied in
some way to the Thessalians, descended from Jason and Medeia.
15. This is the ancient account, but the more recent, and extending from
the time of the Persians to our own age, may be given summarily, and in
part only (as follows); Persians and Macedonians gained possession of
Armenia, next those who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was
Orontes, a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians: it was
then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris, generals of
Antiochus the Great, who made war against the Romans. These were
governors by permission of the king, but upon his overthrow they
attached themselves to the Romans, were declared independent, and had
the title of kings. Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had
Armenia, properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media, to
the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Colchis, and
Cappadocia upon the Euxine.
Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zariadris, and had the
southern parts of Armenia, which verge rather to the west. He was
defeated by Tigranes, who became master of the whole country. He had
experienced many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
[CAS. 532] hostage among the Parthians; then by their means he returned
to his country, in compensation for which service they obtained seventy
valleys in Armenia. When he acquired power, he recovered these valleys,
and devastated the country of the Parthians, the territory about Ninus,
and that about Arbela. [1070] He subjected to his authority the
Atropatenians, and the Gordyæans; by force of arms he obtained
possession also of the rest of Mesopotamia, and, after crossing the
Euphrates, of Syria and Phœnicia. Having attained this height of
prosperity, he even founded near Iberia,[1071] between this country and
the Zeugma on the Euphrates, a city, which he named Tigranocerta, and
collected inhabitants out of twelve Grecian cities, which he had
depopulated. But Lucullus, who had commanded in the war against
Mithridates, surprised him, thus engaged, and dismissed the inhabitants
to their respective homes. The buildings which were half finished he
demolished, and left a small village remaining. He drove Tigranes both
out of Syria and Phœnicia.
Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he continued a friend of
the Romans. But having betrayed Antony to the Parthians in the war with
that people, he suffered punishment for his treachery. He was carried in
chains to Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through the
city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking out of the Actiac
war he was then put to death. Many kings reigned after Artavasdes, who
were dependent upon Cæsar and the Romans. The country is still governed
in the same manner.
16. Both the Medes and Armenians have adopted all the sacred rites of
the Persians, but the Armenians pay particular reverence to Anaïtis, and
have built temples to her honour in several places, especially in
Acilisene. They dedicate there to her service male and female slaves; in
this there is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of
the highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters to the
goddess. It is customary for these women, after being prostituted a
long period at the temple of Anaïtis, to be disposed of in marriage, no
one disdaining a connexion with such persons. Herodotus mentions
something similar respecting the Lydian women, all of whom prostitute
themselves. But they treat their paramours with much kindness, they
entertain them hospitably, and frequently make a return of more presents
than they receive, being amply supplied with means derived from their
wealthy connexions. They do not admit into their dwellings accidental
strangers, but prefer those of a rank equal to their own.
BOOK XII.
CAPPADOCIA.
SUMMARY.
The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz.
Cappadocia, Galatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mæonia: the
cities, Sinope in Pontus, Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise
Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with the islands lying
along the coast; the mountains and rivers.
CHAPTER I.
1. [1072]Cappadocia consists of many parts, and has experienced frequent
changes.
The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those who are bounded
on the south by the Cilician Taurus,[1073] as it is called; on the east
by Armenia, Colchis, and by the intervening nations who speak different
languages; on the north by the Euxine, as far as the mouth of the
Halys;[1074] on the west by the Paphlagonians, and by the Galatians, who
migrated into Phrygia, and spread themselves as far as Lycaonia, and the
Cilicians, who occupy Cilicia Tracheia (Cilicia the mountainous). [1075]
2. Among the nations that speak the same language, the ancients placed
the Cataonians by themselves, contra-distinguishing them from the
Cappadocians, whom they considered as a different people. In the
enumeration of the nations they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then
the Euphrates, and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to
include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies between
Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to Commagene, and
constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia, according to the division of
the country into ten provinces. For the kings in our times who preceded
Archelaus[1076] usually divided the kingdom of Cappadocia in this
manner.
Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time each province had
its own governor, and since no difference appears in the language of the
Cataonians compared with that of the other Cappadocians, nor any
difference in their customs, it is surprising how entirely the
characteristic marks of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were
distinct nations; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of
the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.
3. This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a large peninsula
formed by two seas; by the bay of Issus, extending to Cilicia Tracheia,
and by the Euxine lying between Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni.
The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula; the whole tract lying
to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Herodotus[1077] gives the name
of the country within the Halys. This is the country the whole of which
was the kingdom of Crœsus. Herodotus calls him king of the nations on
this side the river Halys. But writers of the present time give the name
of Asia, which is the appellation of the whole continent, to the country
within the Taurus.
This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphlagonians,
Phrygians, and Lycaonians; then Bithynians, Mysians, and the Epictetus;
besides these, Troas, and Hellespontia; next to these, and situated on
the sea, are the Æolians and Ionians, who are Greeks; the inhabitants of
the remaining portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts
are Lydians.
We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.
4. The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia after it had been
divided by the Persians into two satrapies, and permitted, partly with
and partly without the consent of the people, the satrapies to be
altered to two kingdoms, one of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and
Cappadocia [CAS. 534] near the Taurus, or Cappadocia the Great; the
other they called Pontus, but according to other writers, Cappadocia on
Pontus.
We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great was at first
distributed; upon the death of Archelaus the king, Cæsar and the senate
decreed that it should be a Roman province. But when the country was
divided in the time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten
provinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia,
Cilicia, Tyanītis, and Garsaurītis; the remaining five were Laviansene,
Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene. The Romans afterwards
assigned to the predecessors of Archelaus an eleventh province formed
out of Cilicia, consisting of the country about Castabala and
Cybistra,[1078] extending to Derbe, belonging to Antipater, the robber.
Cilicia Trachea about Elæussa was assigned to Archelaus, and all the
country which served as the haunts of pirates.
CHAPTER II.
1. Melitene resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is planted with
fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia which is planted in
this manner. It produces oil, and the wine Monarites, which vies with
the wines of Greece. It is situated opposite to Sophene, having the
river Euphrates flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it.
In the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a considerable
fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the prince of Sophene for a
hundred talents. Lucullus presented it afterwards as a reward of valour
to the Cappadocian prince for his services in the war against
Mithridates.
2. Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,[1079] and produces everything
except evergreen trees. It is surrounded by mountains, and among others
by the Amanus on the side towards the south, a mass separated from the
Cilician Taurus, and also by the Anti-Taurus,[1080] a mass rent off in a
contrary direction. The Amanus extends from Cataonia to Cilicia, and
the Syrian sea towards the west and south. In this intervening space it
comprises the whole of the gulf of Issus, and the plains of the
Cilicians which lie towards the Taurus. But the Anti-Taurus inclines to
the north, and a little also to the east, and then terminates in the
interior of the country.
3. In the Anti-Taurus are deep and narrow valleys, in which is situated
Comana,[1081] and the temple of Enyus (Bellona), which they call Ma.
It is a considerable city. It contains a very great multitude of
persons who at times are actuated by divine impulse, and of servants of
the temple. It is inhabited by Cataonians, who are chiefly under the
command of the priest, but in other respects subject to the king. The
former presides over the temple, and has authority over the servants
belonging to it, who, at the time that I was there, exceeded in number
six thousand persons, including men and women. A large tract of land
adjoins the temple, the revenue of which the priest enjoys. He is
second in rank in Cappadocia after the king, and, in general, the
priests are descended from the same family as the kings. Orestes, when
he came hither with his sister Iphigenia from Tauric Scythia,[1082]
is thought to have introduced the sacred rites performed in honour of
Diana Tauropolus, and to have deposited here the tresses (Coman, κόμην)
of mourning, from which the city had the name of Comana.
The river Sarus flows through this city, and passes out through the
valleys of the Taurus to the plains of Cilicia, and to the sea lying
below them.
4. The Pyramus,[1083] which has its source in the middle of the plain,
is navigable throughout Cataonia. There is a large subterraneous
channel, through which the water flows under-ground to a great distance,
and then may be seen springing up again to the surface. If an arrow is
let down into the pit from above, the resistance of the water is so
great that it is scarcely immersed. Although it pursues its course with
great[1084] depth and breadth, it undergoes an extraordinary contraction
of its size by the time it has reached the Taurus. There is also an
extraordinary fissure in the mountain, through which the stream is
carried. For, as in rocks which have burst and split in two [CAS. 536]
parts, the projections in one correspond so exactly with the hollows in
the other that they might even be fitted together, so here I have seen
the rocks at the distance of two or three plethra, overhanging the river
on each side, and nearly reaching to the summit of the mountain, with
hollows on one side answering to projections on the other. The bed
between (the mountains) is entirely rock; it has a deep and very narrow
fissure through the middle, so that a dog and a hare might leap across
it. This is the channel of the river; it is full to the margin, and in
breadth resembles a canal. [1085] But on account of the winding of its
course, the great contraction of the stream, and the depth of the
ravine, a noise, like that of thunder, strikes at a distance on the ears
of those who approach it. In passing out through the mountains, it
brings down from Cataonia, and from the Cilician plains, so great a
quantity of alluvial soil to the sea, that an oracle to the following
effect is reported to have been uttered respecting it:
“The time will come, when Pyramus, with its deep whirlpools,
by advancing on the sea-shore, will reach the sacred Cyprus. ”
Something similar to this takes place in Egypt. The Nile is continually
converting the sea into continent by an accumulation of earth;
accordingly Herodotus calls Egypt a gift of the river, and Homer says,
that the Pharos was formerly out at sea, not as it is at present
connected with the mainland of Egypt.
5. [The third[1086] in rank is the Dacian priesthood of Jupiter,
inferior to this, but still of importance. ] There is at this place a
body of salt water, having the circumference of a considerable lake. It
is shut in by lofty and perpendicular hills, so that the descent is by
steps. The water it is said does not increase in quantity, nor has it
anywhere an apparent outlet.
6. Neither the plain of the Cataonians nor Melitene have any city, but
strongholds upon the mountains, as Azamora, and Dastarcum, round which
runs the river Carmalas. [1087] There is also the temple of the Cataonian
Apollo, which is venerated throughout the whole of Cappadocia, and
which the Cappadocians have taken as a model of their own temples. Nor
have the other provinces, except two, any cities. Of the rest,
Sargarausene has a small town Herpa, and a river Carmalas, which also
discharges itself into the Cilician sea. [1088] In the other provinces is
Argos, a lofty fortress near the Taurus, and Nora, now called Neroassus,
in which Eumenes sustained a long siege. In our time it was a
treasure-hold of Sisinus, who attempted to take possession of the
kingdom of Cappadocia. To him belonged Cadena, a royal seat, built after
the form of a city. Situated upon the borders of Lycaonia is Garsauira,
a village town, said to have been formerly the capital of the country.
In Morimene, among the Venasii, is a temple of Jupiter, with buildings
capable of receiving nearly three thousand servants of the temple. It
has a tract of sacred land attached to it, very fertile, and affording
to the priest a yearly revenue of fifteen talents. The priest is
appointed for life like the priest at Comana, and is next to him in
rank.
7. Two provinces only have cities. In the Tyanitis is Tyana,[1089] lying
at the foot of the Taurus at the Cilician Gates,[1090] where are the
easiest and the most frequented passes into Cilicia and Syria. It is
called, “Eusebeia at the Taurus. ” Tyanitis is fertile, and the greatest
part of it consists of plains. Tyana is built upon the mound of
Semiramis, which is fortified with good walls. At a little distance from
this city are Castabala and Cybistra, towns which approach still nearer
to the mountain. At Castabala is a temple of Diana Perasia, where, it is
said, the priestesses walk with naked feet unhurt upon burning coals. To
this place some persons apply the story respecting Orestes and Diana
Tauropolus, and say that the goddess was called Perasia, because she was
conveyed from beyond (πέραθεν) sea.
In Tyanitis, one of the ten provinces above mentioned, is the city
Tyana. But with these I do not reckon the cities that were afterwards
added, Castabala, and Cybistra, and those in Cilicia Tracheia, to which
belongs Elæussa, a small [CAS. 538] fertile island, which Archelaus
furnished with excellent buildings, where he passed the greater part of
his time.
In the Cilician province, as it is called, is Mazaca,[1091] the capital
of the nation. It is also called “Eusebeia,” with the addition “at the
Argæus,” for it is situated at the foot of the Argæus,[1092] the highest
mountain in that district; its summit is always covered with snow.
Persons who ascend it (but they are not many) say that both the Euxine
and the sea of Issus may be seen from thence in clear weather.
Mazaca is not adapted in other respects by nature for the settlement of
a city, for it is without water, and unfortified. Through the neglect of
the governors, it is without walls, perhaps intentionally, lest,
trusting to the wall as to a fortification, the inhabitants of a plain,
which has hills situated above it, and not exposed to the attacks of
missile weapons, should addict themselves to robbery. The country about,
although it consists of plains, is entirely barren and uncultivated, for
the soil is sandy, and rocky underneath. At a little distance further
there are burning plains, and pits full of fire to an extent of many
stadia, so that the necessaries of life are brought from a distance.
What seems to be a peculiar advantage (abundance of wood) is a source of
danger. For though nearly the whole of Cappadocia is without timber, the
Argæus is surrounded by a forest, so that wood may be procured near at
hand, yet even the region lying below the forest contains fire in many
parts, and springs of cold water; but as neither the fire nor the water
break out upon the surface, the greatest part of the country is covered
with herbage. In some parts the bottom is marshy, and flames burst out
from the ground by night. Those acquainted with the country collect wood
with caution; but there is danger to others, and particularly to cattle,
which fall into these hidden pits of fire.
8. In the plain in front of the city, and about 40 stadia from it, is a
river of the name of Melas,[1093] whose source is in ground lower than
the level of the city. It is useless to the inhabitants, because it
does not flow from an elevated situation. It spreads abroad in marshes
and lakes, and in the summer-time corrupts the air round the city. A
valuable stone quarry is rendered almost useless by it. For there are
extensive beds of stone, from which the Mazaceni obtain an abundant
supply of materials for building, but the slabs, being covered with
water, are not easily detached by the workmen. These are the marshes
which in every part are subject to take fire.
Ariarathes the king filled in some narrow channels by which the Melas
entered the Halys, and converted the neighbouring plain into a wide
lake. There he selected some small islands like the Cyclades, where he
passed his time in boyish and frivolous diversions. The barrier,
however, was broken down all at once, and the waters again flowed abroad
and swelled the Halys, which swept away a large part of the Cappadocian
territory, and destroyed many buildings and plantations; it also damaged
a considerable part of the country of the Galatians, who occupy Phrygia.
In compensation for this injury he paid a fine of three hundred talents
to the inhabitants, who had referred the matter to the decision of the
Romans. The same was the case at Herpa; for he there obstructed the
stream of the Carmalas, and, on the bursting of the dyke, the water
damaged some of the places in the Cilician territories about Mallus; he
was obliged to make compensation to those who had sustained injury.
9. Although the territory of the Mazaceni is destitute in many respects
of natural advantages, it seems to have been preferred by the kings as a
place of residence, because it was nearest the centre of those districts
which supplied timber, stone for building, and fodder, of which a very
large quantity was required for the subsistence of their cattle. Their
city was almost a camp. The security of their persons and treasure[1094]
depended upon the protection afforded by numerous fortresses, some of
which belonged to the king, others to their friends.
Mazaca is distant from Pontus[1095] about 800 stadia to the south, and
from the Euphrates a little less than double that distance; from the
Cilician Gates and the camp of Cyrus, a [CAS. 539] journey of six days
by way of Tyana,[1096] which is situated about the middle of the route,
and is distant from Cybistra 300 stadia. The Mazaceni adopt the laws of
Charondas, and elect a Nomōdist, (or Chanter of the Laws,) who, like the
Jurisconsults of the Romans, is the interpreter of their laws. Tigranes
the Armenian, when he overran Cappadocia, treated them with great
severity. He forced them to abandon their settlements, and go into
Mesopotamia; they peopled Tigranocerta, chiefly by their numbers.
Afterwards, upon the capture of Tigranocerta, those who were able
returned to their own country.
10. The breadth of the country from Pontus to the Taurus is about 1800
stadia; the length from Lycaonia and Phrygia, as far as the Euphrates to
the east, and Armenia, is about 3000 stadia. The soil is fertile, and
abounds with fruits of the earth, particularly corn, and with cattle of
all kinds. Although it lies more to the south than Pontus, it is colder.
Bagadania, although a plain country, and situated more towards the south
than any district in Cappadocia, (for it lies at the foot of the
Taurus,) produces scarcely any fruit-bearing trees. It affords pasture
for wild asses, as does a large portion of the other parts of the
country, particularly that about Garsauira, Lycaonia, and Morimene.
In Cappadocia is found the red earth called the Sinopic, which is better
than that of any other country. The Spanish only can rival it. It had
the name of Sinopic, because the merchants used to bring it down from
Sinope, before the traffic of the Ephesians extended as far as the
people of Cappadocia. It is said that even plates of crystal and of the
onyx stone were discovered by the miners of Archelaus near the country
of the Galatians. There was a place where was found a white stone of the
colour of ivory in pieces of the size of small whetstones, from which
were made handles for small swords. Another place produced large masses
of transparent stone for windows, which were exported.
The boundary of Pontus and Cappadocia is a mountainous range parallel
to the Taurus, commencing from the western extremities of Chammanene,
(where stands Dasmenda, a fortress built upon a precipice,) and
extending to the eastern parts of Laviansene. Both Chammanene and
Laviansene are provinces of Cappadocia.
11. When the Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, first governed Asia,
they made treaties of friendship and alliance both with the nations and
with the kings. This honour was conferred upon the other kings
separately and independently, but upon the king of Cappadocia in common
with the nation. On the extinction of the royal race, the Romans
admitted the independence of the Cappadocians according to the treaty of
friendship and alliance which they had made with the nation. The
deputies excused themselves from accepting the liberty which was offered
to them, declaring that they were unable to bear it, and requested that
a king might be appointed. The Romans were surprised that any people
should be unwilling to enjoy liberty, but permitted[1097] them to elect
by suffrage any one they pleased from among themselves. They elected
Ariobarzanes. The race became extinct in the third generation.
Archelaus, who was not connected with the nation, was appointed king by
Antony.
So much respecting the Greater Cappadocia.
With regard to Cilicia Tracheia, which was annexed to the Greater
Cappadocia, it will be better to describe it when we give an account of
the whole of Cilicia.
CHAPTER III.
1. Mithridates Eupator was appointed King of Pontus. His kingdom
consisted of the country bounded by the Halys,[1098] extending to the
Tibareni,[1099] to Armenia, to the territory within the Halys, extending
as far as Amastris,[1100] and to some parts of Paphlagonia. He annexed
to (the kingdom of) Pontus the sea-coast towards the west as far as
Heracleia,[1101] the birth-place of Heracleides the Platonic philosopher,
and towards [CAS. 541] the east, the country extending to Colchis, and
the Lesser Armenia. Pompey, after the overthrow of Mithridates, found
the kingdom comprised within these boundaries. He distributed the
country towards Armenia and towards Colchis among the princes who had
assisted him in the war; the remainder he divided into eleven
governments, and annexed them to Bithynia, so that out of both there was
formed one province. Some people in the inland parts he subjected to the
kings descended from Pylæmenes, in the same manner as he delivered over
the Galatians to be governed by tetrarchs of that nation.
In later times the Roman emperors made different divisions of the same
country, appointing kings and rulers, making some cities free, and
subjecting others to the authority of rulers, others again were left
under the dominion of the Roman people.
As we proceed in our description according to the present state of
things, we shall touch slightly on their former condition, whenever it
may be useful.
I shall begin from Heracleia,[1102] which is the most westerly of these
places.
2. In sailing out of the Propontis into the Euxine Sea, on the left hand
are the parts adjoining to Byzantium, (Constantinople,) and these belong
to the Thracians.
Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus, for there the mountain had
this name, and includes Sophene in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus
and the Taurus.
Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates, along the
Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north a large mountain with
many branches, one of which is called Paryadres,[1036] another the
Moschic mountains, and others by other names. The Moschic mountains
comprehend the whole of Armenians as far as the Iberians and Albanians.
Other mountains again rise towards the east above the Caspian Sea, and
extend as far as Media the Greater, and the Atropatian-Media. They call
all these parts of the mountains Parachoathras, as well as those which
extend to the Caspian Gates, and those still farther above towards the
east, which are contiguous to Asia. The following are the names of the
mountains towards the north.
The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates, extending
towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,[1037] at their
commencement have the name of Taurus, which separates Sophene and the
rest of Armenia from Mesopotamia, but some writers call them the
Gordyæan mountains. [1038] Among these is Mount Masius,[1039] which is
situated above Nisibis,[1040] and Tigranocerta. [1041] It then becomes
more elevated, and is called Niphates. [1042] Somewhere in this part on
the southern side of the mountainous chain are the sources of the
Tigris. Then the ridge of mountains continuing to extend from the
Niphates forms the mountain Zagrius, which separates Media and
Babylonia. After the Zagrius follows above Babylonia the mountainous
range of the Elymæi and Parætaceni, and above Media that of the Cossæi.
In the middle of these branches are situated Media and Armenia, which
comprise many mountains, and many mountain plains, as well as plains and
large valleys. Numerous small tribes live around among the mountains,
who are for the most part robbers.
We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to which belong the
Caspian Gates.
5. In our opinion these nations may be considered as situated to the
north, since they are within the Taurus. But Eratosthenes, having
divided Asia into southern and northern portions, and what he calls
seals, (or sections,)[1043] designating some as northern, others as
southern, makes the Caspian Gates the boundary of both climates. He
might without any impropriety have represented the more southern parts
of the Caspian Gates as in southern Asia, among which are Media and
Armenia, and the parts more to the north than the Caspian Gates in
northern Asia, which might be the case according to different
descriptions of the country. But perhaps Eratosthenes did not attend to
the circumstance, that there [CAS. 523] is no part of Armenia nor of
Media towards the south on the other side of the Taurus.
CHAPTER XIII.
1. Media is divided into two parts, one of which is called the Greater
Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,[1044] a large city containing the royal
seat of the Median empire. This palace the Parthians continue to occupy
even at this time. Here their kings pass the summer, for the air of
Media is cool. Their winter residence is at Seleucia, on the Tigris,
near Babylon.
The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name from Atropatus,
a chief who prevented this country, which is a part of Greater Media,
from being subjected to the dominion of the Macedonians. When he was
made king he established the independence of this country; his
successors continue to the present day, and have at different times
contracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and Parthia.
2. Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane[1045] towards the
east, towards the west on the Greater Media, and on both towards the
north; towards the south it is contiguous to the people living about the
recess of the Hyrcanian Sea, and to Matiane.
According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable, since it
can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.
It contains a lake called Spauta,[1046] (Kapauta,) in which salt
effloresces, and is consolidated. The salt occasions itching and pain,
but oil is a cure for both, and sweet water restores the colour of
clothes, which have the appearance of being burnt,[1047] when they have
been immersed in the lake by ignorant persons for the purpose of washing
them.
They have powerful neighbours in the Armenians and Parthians, by whom
they are frequently plundered; they resist however, and recover what has
been taken away, as they recovered Symbace[1048] from the Armenians, who
were defeated by the Romans, and they themselves became the friends of
Cæsar. They at the same time endeavour to conciliate the Parthians.
3. The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain; the winter
palace[1049] is in Vera, a strong fortress which Antony besieged in his
expedition against the Parthians. The last is distant from the Araxes,
which separates Armenia and Atropatene, 2400 stadia, according to
Dellius, the friend of Antony, who wrote an account of the expedition of
Antony against the Parthians, which he himself accompanied, and in which
he held a command.
The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards the north
is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the mountain tribes of
Cadusii, Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other similar nations, who are
migratory, and robbers. These people are scattered over the Zagrus and
Niphates. The Curtii in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the
Amardi,) and those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present,
have the same kind of character.
4. The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior in number to
that of the Ariani. They are very expert in throwing the javelin. In the
rocky places the soldiers engage in battle on foot, instead of on their
horses. The expedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the
nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide, Artavasdes,
king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made his adviser, and master of
his intentions respecting the war, when at the same time that prince was
contriving a plan for his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but
too late; the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the
Romans, in conjunction with another person; he made the march from the
Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of Atropatene to exceed 8000
stadia, or double the distance of the direct course, [by leading the
army] over mountains, and places where there were no roads, and by a
circuitous route.
5. [CAS. 524] The Greater Media anciently governed the whole of Asia,
after the overthrow of the Syrian empire: but afterwards, in the time of
Astyages, the Medes were deprived of this extensive sovereignty by Cyrus
and the Persians, yet they retained much of their ancient importance.
Ecbatana was the winter (royal? ) residence[1050] of the Persian kings,
as it was of the Macedonian princes, who overthrew the Persian empire,
and got possession of Syria. It still continues to serve the same
purpose, and affords security to the kings of Parthia.
6. Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the mountains of the
Cossæi, a predatory tribe. They once furnished the Elymæi, whose allies
they were in the war against the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000
archers. Nearchus says that there were four robber tribes; the Mardi,
who were contiguous to the Persians; the Uxii and Elymæi, who were on
the borders of the Persians and Susii; and the Cossæi, on those of the
Medes; that all of them exacted tribute from the kings; that the Cossæi
received presents, when the king, having passed his summer at Ecbatana
went down to Babylonia; that Alexander attacked them in the winter time,
and repressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the east by
these nations, and by the Parætaceni, who are contiguous to the
Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers; on the north by the
Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian Sea, and by other nations, whom we
have just enumerated; on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the
ancients called Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies
Massabatica, which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymæa;
on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Armenians.
There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Macedonians, as
Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagæ, and Rhaga itself, founded by
Nicator, who called it Europus, and the Parthians Arsacia, situated
about 500 stadia to the south of the Caspian Gates, according to
Apollodorus of Artemita.
7. The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is cold; such
are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places about Rhagæ and the
Caspian Gates, and the northern parts in general extending thence as far
as Matiane and Armenia.
The country below the Caspian Gates consists of flat grounds and
valleys. It is very fertile, and produces everything except the olive,
or if it grows anywhere it does not yield oil, and is dry. The country
is peculiarly adapted, as well as Armenia, for breeding horses. There is
a meadow tract called Hippobotus, which is traversed by travellers on
their way from Persia and Babylonia to the Caspian Gates. Here, it is
said, fifty thousand mares were pastured in the time of the Persians,
and were the king’s stud. The Nesæan horses, the best and largest in the
king’s province, were of this breed, according to some writers, but
according to others they came from Armenia. Their shape is peculiar, as
is that of the Parthian horses, compared with those of Greece and others
in our country.
The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses we call
peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in Media in great
abundance. The country produces Silphium,[1051] from which is obtained
the Medic juice, much inferior to the Cyrenaic, but sometimes it excels
the latter, which may be accounted for by the difference of places, or
from a change the plant may undergo, or from the mode of extracting and
preparing the juice so as to continue good when laid by for use.
8. Such then is the nature of the country with respect to magnitude; its
length and breadth are nearly equal. The greatest breadth
(length? )[1052] however seems to be that reckoned from the pass across
the Zagrus, which is called the Median Gate, to the Caspian Gates,
through the country of Sigriana, 4100 stadia.
The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and wealth of the
country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians yearly, in addition to a
tribute in silver, 1500 horses, 2000 mules, and 50,000 sheep, and the
Medes contributed nearly double this amount.
9. Many of their customs are the same as those of the Armenians, from
the similarity of the countries which they inhabit. The Medes however
were the first to communicate them to the Armenians, and still before
that time to the Persians, who were their masters, and successors in the
empire of Asia.
[CAS. 526] The Persian stole, as it is now called, the pursuit of
archery and horsemanship, the court paid to their kings, their attire,
and veneration fitting for gods paid by the subjects to the
prince,--these the Persians derived from the Medes. That this is the
fact appears chiefly from their dress. A tiara, a citaris, a hat,[1053]
tunics with sleeves reaching to the hands, and trowsers, are proper to
be worn in cold and northerly places, such as those in Media, but they
are not by any means adapted to inhabitants of the south. The Persians
had their principal settlements on the Gulf of Persia, being situated
more to the south than the Babylonians and the Susii. But after the
overthrow of the Medes they gained possession of some tracts of country
contiguous to Media. The custom however of the vanquished appeared to
the conquerors to be so noble, and appropriate to royal state, that
instead of nakedness or scanty clothing, they endured the use of the
feminine stole, and were entirely covered with dress to the feet.
10. Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she ruled in these
countries, introduced this kind of dress, and concealed her countenance
as often as she appeared in public in place of the king; that the
memorials of Jason are, the Jasonian heroa,[1054] held in great
reverence by the Barbarians, (besides a great mountain above the Caspian
Gates on the left hand, called Jasonium,) and that the memorials of
Medeia are the kind of dress, and the name of the country. Medus, her
son, is said to have been her successor in the kingdom, and the country
to have been called after his name. In agreement with this are the
Jasonia in Armenia, the name of the country, and many other
circumstances which we shall mention.
11. It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as king, but this
does not generally prevail, being confined to the mountain tribes. The
custom for the kings to have many wives is more general, it is found
among all the mountaineers also, but they are not permitted to have less
than five. In the same manner the women think it honourable for husbands
to have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if they
have less than five.
While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and mountainous
part is barren. The people subsist upon the produce of trees. They make
cakes of apples, sliced and dried, and bread of roasted almonds; they
express a wine from some kind of roots. They eat the flesh of wild
animals, and do not breed any tame animals. So much then respecting the
Medes. As to the laws and customs in common use throughout the whole of
Media, as they are the same as those of the Persians in consequence of
the establishment of the Persian empire, I shall speak of them when I
give an account of the latter nation.
CHAPTER XIV.
1. The southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Taurus, which
separates Armenia from the whole of the country situated between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is called Mesopotamia. The eastern
parts are contiguous to the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the
north are the range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the
Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The Caucasus
encircles these nations, and approaches close to the Armenians, the
Moschic and Colchic mountains, and extends as far as the country of the
people called Tibareni. On the west are these nations and the mountains
Paryadres and Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country
on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from Cappadocia and
Commagene.
2. The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Taurus, and flows at
first towards the west through Armenia, it then makes a bend to the
south, and intersects the Taurus between the Armenians, Cappadocians,
and Commageni. Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns
towards the winter sunrise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia
with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian Gulf.
Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost all of them
mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts which verge towards Media.
To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again in the country on
the other side of the Euphrates, occupied [CAS. 527] by the Commageni,
and Meliteni formed by the Euphrates, belongs Mount Masius, which is
situated on the south above the Mygdones in Mesopotamia, in whose
territory is Nisibis; on the northern parts is Sophene, lying between
the Masius and Anti-Taurus. Anti-Taurus begins from the Euphrates and
the Taurus, and terminates at the eastern parts of Armenia, enclosing
within it Sophene. It has on the other side Acilisene, which lies
between [Anti-]Taurus and the bed of the Euphrates before it turns to
the south. The royal city of Sophene is Carcathiocerta. [1055]
Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the Niphates, then
the Abus,[1056] from which flow both the Euphrates and the Araxes, the
former to the west, the latter to the east; then the Nibarus, which
extends as far as Media.
3. We have described the course of the Euphrates. The Araxes, after
running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes a bend towards the west
and north. It then first flows beside Azara, then by Artaxata,[1057] a
city of the Armenians; afterwards it passes through the plain of
Araxenus to discharge itself into the Caspian Sea.
4. There are many mountains in Armenia, and many mountain plains, in
which not even the vine grows. There are also many valleys, some are
moderately fertile, others are very productive, as the Araxenian plain,
through which the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and
empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene, which borders
upon Albania, and the river Cyrus; then Gogarene. All this district
abounds with products of the soil, cultivated fruit trees and
evergreens. It bears also the olive.
There is Phauene, (Phanenæ, Phasiana? ) a province of Armenia, Comisene,
and Orchistene, which furnishes large bodies of cavalry.
Chorzene[1058] and Cambysene are the most northerly countries, and
particularly subject to falls of snow. They are contiguous to the
Caucasian mountains, to Iberia, and Colchis. Here, they say, on the
passes over mountains, it frequently happens that whole companies of
persons have been overwhelmed in violent snow-storms. Travellers are
provided against such dangerous accidents with poles, which they force
upwards to the surface of the snow, for the purpose of breathing, and of
signifying their situation to other travellers who may come that way, so
that they may receive assistance, be extricated, and so escape alive.
They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow, which contain
good water, enveloped as in a coat; that animals are bred in the snow,
which Apollonides call scoleces,[1059] and Theophanes, thripes, and that
these hollow masses contain good water, which is obtained by breaking
open their coats or coverings. The generation of these animals is
supposed to be similar to that of the gnats, (or mosquitos,) from
flames, and the sparks in mines.
5. According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly a small country,
was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris, who had been generals of
Antiochus the Great, and at last, after his overthrow, when they became
kings, (the former of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene? ) Odomantis, and
some other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they
simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away portions of the
territory of the surrounding nations: from the Medes they took the
Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda; from the Iberians, the country at
the foot of the Paryadres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the
other side of the Cyrus; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynœci, Carenitis
and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Armenia, or are even parts of
it; from the Cataones, Acilisene,[1060] and the country about the
Anti-Taurus; from the Syrians, Taronitis;[1061] hence they all speak the
same language.
6. The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artaxiasata, [CAS.
529] built by Hannibal for the king Artaxias, and Arxata, both situated
on the Araxes; Arxata on the confines of Atropatia, and Artaxata near
the Araxenian plain; it is well inhabited, and the seat of the kings of
the country. It lies upon a peninsular elbow of land; the river
encircles the walls except at the isthmus, which is enclosed by a ditch
and rampart.
Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Tigranes and
Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and Olane. There were others
also upon the Euphrates. Ador, (Addon? ) the governor of the fortress,
occasioned the revolt of Artageræ, but the generals of Cæsar retook it
after a long siege, and destroyed the walls.
7. There are many rivers in the country. The most celebrated are the
Phasis and Lycus; they empty themselves into the Euxine; (Eratosthenes
instead of the Lycus mentions the Thermodon, but erroneously;) the Cyrus
and the Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris into
the Persian Gulf.
8. There are also large lakes in Armenia; one the Mantiane,[1062] which
word translated signifies Cyane, or Blue, the largest salt-water lake,
it is said, after the Palus Mæotis, extending as far as (Media-)
Atropatia. It has salt pans for the concretion of salt.
The next is Arsene,[1063] which is also called Thopitis. Its waters
contain nitre, and are used for cleaning and fulling clothes. It is
unfit by these qualities for drinking. The Tigris passes through this
lake[1064] after issuing from the mountainous country near the Niphates,
and by its rapidity keeps its stream unmixed with the water of the lake,
whence it has its name, for the Medes call an arrow, Tigris. This river
contains fish of various kinds, but the lake one kind only.
At the extremity of the lake the river falls into a deep cavity in the
earth. After pursuing a long course under-ground, it reappears in the
Chalonitis; thence it goes to Opis, and to the wall of Semiramis, as it
is called, leaving the Gordyæi[1065] and the whole of Mesopotamia on the
right hand. The Euphrates, on the contrary, has the same country on the
left. Having approached one another, and formed Mesopotamia, one
traverses Seleucia in its course to the Persian Gulf, the other Babylon,
as I have said in replying to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus.
9. There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,[1066] near Caballa.
Alexander sent Menon to the mines with a body of soldiers, but he was
strangled[1067] by the inhabitants of the country. There are other
mines, and also a mine of Sandyx as it is called, to which is given the
name of Armenian colour, it resembles the Calche. [1068]
This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this respect
to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nesæan horses, which the
kings of Persia used, is found here also; the satrap of Armenia used to
send annually to the king of Persia 20,000 foals at the time of the
festival of the Mithracina. Artavasdes, when he accompanied Antony in
his invasion of Media, exhibited, besides other bodies of cavalry, 6000
horse covered with complete armour drawn up in array.
Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians also, admire this
kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses covered with armour.
10. Of the riches and power of this country, this is no slight proof,
that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the father of Artavasdes, the
payment of 6000 talents of silver, he immediately distributed the money
among the Roman army, to each soldier 50 drachmæ, 1000 to a centurion,
and a talent to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.
11. Theophanes represents this as the size of the country; its breadth
to be 100 schœni, and its length double this number, reckoning the
schœnus at 40 stadia; but this computation exceeds the truth. It is
nearer the truth to take the [CAS. 530] length as he has given it, and
the breadth at one half, or a little more.
Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its power.
12. There exists an ancient account of the origin of this nation to the
following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thessalian city, which lies
between Pheræ and Larisa on the lake Bœbe, accompanied Jason, as we have
already said, in his expedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the
country had its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius
the Larisæan, persons who had accompanied the army of Alexander. Some of
the followers of Armenus settled in Acilisene, which was formerly
subject to the Sopheni; others in the Syspiritis, and spread as far as
Calachene and Adiabene, beyond the borders of Armenia.
The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessalian origin;
such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are called Thessalian; they
are fastened about the body with a girdle, and with a clasp on the
shoulder. The tragedians, for they required some additional decoration
of this kind, imitate the Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians
in particular, from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit
the most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afforded the
most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their theatrical
representations. The passion for riding and the care of horses
characterize the Thessalians, and are common to Armenians and Medes.
The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason: some of these
memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as Parmenio restored
the temple of Jason at Abdera.
13. It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called the Araxes
by this name on account of its resemblance to the Peneius, for the
Peneius had the name of Araxes from bursting through Tempe, and rending
(ἀπαράξαι) Ossa from Olympus. The Araxes also in Armenia, descending
from the mountains, is said to have spread itself in ancient times,
and to have overflowed the plains, like a sea, having no outlet; that
Jason, in imitation of what is to be seen at Tempe, made the opening
through which the water at present precipitates itself into the Caspian
Sea; that upon this the Araxenian plain, through which the river flows
to the cataract, became uncovered. This story which is told of the
river Araxes contains some probability; that of Herodotus[1069] none
whatever. For he says that, after flowing out of the country of the
Matiani, it is divided into forty rivers, and separates the Scythians
from the Bactrians. Callisthenes has followed Herodotus.
14. Some tribes of Ænianes are mentioned, some of whom settled in Vitia,
others above the Armenians beyond the Abus and the Nibarus. These latter
are branches of Taurus; the Abus is near the road which leads to
Ecbatana by the temple of Baris (Zaris? ).
Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparæ, or decapitators, are said
to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and Medes.
They are a savage
people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers;
for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.
I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is conjectured
from all the circumstances that the Medes and Armenians are allied in
some way to the Thessalians, descended from Jason and Medeia.
15. This is the ancient account, but the more recent, and extending from
the time of the Persians to our own age, may be given summarily, and in
part only (as follows); Persians and Macedonians gained possession of
Armenia, next those who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was
Orontes, a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians: it was
then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris, generals of
Antiochus the Great, who made war against the Romans. These were
governors by permission of the king, but upon his overthrow they
attached themselves to the Romans, were declared independent, and had
the title of kings. Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had
Armenia, properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media, to
the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Colchis, and
Cappadocia upon the Euxine.
Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zariadris, and had the
southern parts of Armenia, which verge rather to the west. He was
defeated by Tigranes, who became master of the whole country. He had
experienced many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
[CAS. 532] hostage among the Parthians; then by their means he returned
to his country, in compensation for which service they obtained seventy
valleys in Armenia. When he acquired power, he recovered these valleys,
and devastated the country of the Parthians, the territory about Ninus,
and that about Arbela. [1070] He subjected to his authority the
Atropatenians, and the Gordyæans; by force of arms he obtained
possession also of the rest of Mesopotamia, and, after crossing the
Euphrates, of Syria and Phœnicia. Having attained this height of
prosperity, he even founded near Iberia,[1071] between this country and
the Zeugma on the Euphrates, a city, which he named Tigranocerta, and
collected inhabitants out of twelve Grecian cities, which he had
depopulated. But Lucullus, who had commanded in the war against
Mithridates, surprised him, thus engaged, and dismissed the inhabitants
to their respective homes. The buildings which were half finished he
demolished, and left a small village remaining. He drove Tigranes both
out of Syria and Phœnicia.
Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he continued a friend of
the Romans. But having betrayed Antony to the Parthians in the war with
that people, he suffered punishment for his treachery. He was carried in
chains to Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through the
city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking out of the Actiac
war he was then put to death. Many kings reigned after Artavasdes, who
were dependent upon Cæsar and the Romans. The country is still governed
in the same manner.
16. Both the Medes and Armenians have adopted all the sacred rites of
the Persians, but the Armenians pay particular reverence to Anaïtis, and
have built temples to her honour in several places, especially in
Acilisene. They dedicate there to her service male and female slaves; in
this there is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of
the highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters to the
goddess. It is customary for these women, after being prostituted a
long period at the temple of Anaïtis, to be disposed of in marriage, no
one disdaining a connexion with such persons. Herodotus mentions
something similar respecting the Lydian women, all of whom prostitute
themselves. But they treat their paramours with much kindness, they
entertain them hospitably, and frequently make a return of more presents
than they receive, being amply supplied with means derived from their
wealthy connexions. They do not admit into their dwellings accidental
strangers, but prefer those of a rank equal to their own.
BOOK XII.
CAPPADOCIA.
SUMMARY.
The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz.
Cappadocia, Galatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mæonia: the
cities, Sinope in Pontus, Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise
Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with the islands lying
along the coast; the mountains and rivers.
CHAPTER I.
1. [1072]Cappadocia consists of many parts, and has experienced frequent
changes.
The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those who are bounded
on the south by the Cilician Taurus,[1073] as it is called; on the east
by Armenia, Colchis, and by the intervening nations who speak different
languages; on the north by the Euxine, as far as the mouth of the
Halys;[1074] on the west by the Paphlagonians, and by the Galatians, who
migrated into Phrygia, and spread themselves as far as Lycaonia, and the
Cilicians, who occupy Cilicia Tracheia (Cilicia the mountainous). [1075]
2. Among the nations that speak the same language, the ancients placed
the Cataonians by themselves, contra-distinguishing them from the
Cappadocians, whom they considered as a different people. In the
enumeration of the nations they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then
the Euphrates, and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to
include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies between
Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to Commagene, and
constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia, according to the division of
the country into ten provinces. For the kings in our times who preceded
Archelaus[1076] usually divided the kingdom of Cappadocia in this
manner.
Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time each province had
its own governor, and since no difference appears in the language of the
Cataonians compared with that of the other Cappadocians, nor any
difference in their customs, it is surprising how entirely the
characteristic marks of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were
distinct nations; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of
the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.
3. This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a large peninsula
formed by two seas; by the bay of Issus, extending to Cilicia Tracheia,
and by the Euxine lying between Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni.
The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula; the whole tract lying
to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Herodotus[1077] gives the name
of the country within the Halys. This is the country the whole of which
was the kingdom of Crœsus. Herodotus calls him king of the nations on
this side the river Halys. But writers of the present time give the name
of Asia, which is the appellation of the whole continent, to the country
within the Taurus.
This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphlagonians,
Phrygians, and Lycaonians; then Bithynians, Mysians, and the Epictetus;
besides these, Troas, and Hellespontia; next to these, and situated on
the sea, are the Æolians and Ionians, who are Greeks; the inhabitants of
the remaining portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts
are Lydians.
We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.
4. The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia after it had been
divided by the Persians into two satrapies, and permitted, partly with
and partly without the consent of the people, the satrapies to be
altered to two kingdoms, one of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and
Cappadocia [CAS. 534] near the Taurus, or Cappadocia the Great; the
other they called Pontus, but according to other writers, Cappadocia on
Pontus.
We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great was at first
distributed; upon the death of Archelaus the king, Cæsar and the senate
decreed that it should be a Roman province. But when the country was
divided in the time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten
provinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia,
Cilicia, Tyanītis, and Garsaurītis; the remaining five were Laviansene,
Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene. The Romans afterwards
assigned to the predecessors of Archelaus an eleventh province formed
out of Cilicia, consisting of the country about Castabala and
Cybistra,[1078] extending to Derbe, belonging to Antipater, the robber.
Cilicia Trachea about Elæussa was assigned to Archelaus, and all the
country which served as the haunts of pirates.
CHAPTER II.
1. Melitene resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is planted with
fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia which is planted in
this manner. It produces oil, and the wine Monarites, which vies with
the wines of Greece. It is situated opposite to Sophene, having the
river Euphrates flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it.
In the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a considerable
fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the prince of Sophene for a
hundred talents. Lucullus presented it afterwards as a reward of valour
to the Cappadocian prince for his services in the war against
Mithridates.
2. Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,[1079] and produces everything
except evergreen trees. It is surrounded by mountains, and among others
by the Amanus on the side towards the south, a mass separated from the
Cilician Taurus, and also by the Anti-Taurus,[1080] a mass rent off in a
contrary direction. The Amanus extends from Cataonia to Cilicia, and
the Syrian sea towards the west and south. In this intervening space it
comprises the whole of the gulf of Issus, and the plains of the
Cilicians which lie towards the Taurus. But the Anti-Taurus inclines to
the north, and a little also to the east, and then terminates in the
interior of the country.
3. In the Anti-Taurus are deep and narrow valleys, in which is situated
Comana,[1081] and the temple of Enyus (Bellona), which they call Ma.
It is a considerable city. It contains a very great multitude of
persons who at times are actuated by divine impulse, and of servants of
the temple. It is inhabited by Cataonians, who are chiefly under the
command of the priest, but in other respects subject to the king. The
former presides over the temple, and has authority over the servants
belonging to it, who, at the time that I was there, exceeded in number
six thousand persons, including men and women. A large tract of land
adjoins the temple, the revenue of which the priest enjoys. He is
second in rank in Cappadocia after the king, and, in general, the
priests are descended from the same family as the kings. Orestes, when
he came hither with his sister Iphigenia from Tauric Scythia,[1082]
is thought to have introduced the sacred rites performed in honour of
Diana Tauropolus, and to have deposited here the tresses (Coman, κόμην)
of mourning, from which the city had the name of Comana.
The river Sarus flows through this city, and passes out through the
valleys of the Taurus to the plains of Cilicia, and to the sea lying
below them.
4. The Pyramus,[1083] which has its source in the middle of the plain,
is navigable throughout Cataonia. There is a large subterraneous
channel, through which the water flows under-ground to a great distance,
and then may be seen springing up again to the surface. If an arrow is
let down into the pit from above, the resistance of the water is so
great that it is scarcely immersed. Although it pursues its course with
great[1084] depth and breadth, it undergoes an extraordinary contraction
of its size by the time it has reached the Taurus. There is also an
extraordinary fissure in the mountain, through which the stream is
carried. For, as in rocks which have burst and split in two [CAS. 536]
parts, the projections in one correspond so exactly with the hollows in
the other that they might even be fitted together, so here I have seen
the rocks at the distance of two or three plethra, overhanging the river
on each side, and nearly reaching to the summit of the mountain, with
hollows on one side answering to projections on the other. The bed
between (the mountains) is entirely rock; it has a deep and very narrow
fissure through the middle, so that a dog and a hare might leap across
it. This is the channel of the river; it is full to the margin, and in
breadth resembles a canal. [1085] But on account of the winding of its
course, the great contraction of the stream, and the depth of the
ravine, a noise, like that of thunder, strikes at a distance on the ears
of those who approach it. In passing out through the mountains, it
brings down from Cataonia, and from the Cilician plains, so great a
quantity of alluvial soil to the sea, that an oracle to the following
effect is reported to have been uttered respecting it:
“The time will come, when Pyramus, with its deep whirlpools,
by advancing on the sea-shore, will reach the sacred Cyprus. ”
Something similar to this takes place in Egypt. The Nile is continually
converting the sea into continent by an accumulation of earth;
accordingly Herodotus calls Egypt a gift of the river, and Homer says,
that the Pharos was formerly out at sea, not as it is at present
connected with the mainland of Egypt.
5. [The third[1086] in rank is the Dacian priesthood of Jupiter,
inferior to this, but still of importance. ] There is at this place a
body of salt water, having the circumference of a considerable lake. It
is shut in by lofty and perpendicular hills, so that the descent is by
steps. The water it is said does not increase in quantity, nor has it
anywhere an apparent outlet.
6. Neither the plain of the Cataonians nor Melitene have any city, but
strongholds upon the mountains, as Azamora, and Dastarcum, round which
runs the river Carmalas. [1087] There is also the temple of the Cataonian
Apollo, which is venerated throughout the whole of Cappadocia, and
which the Cappadocians have taken as a model of their own temples. Nor
have the other provinces, except two, any cities. Of the rest,
Sargarausene has a small town Herpa, and a river Carmalas, which also
discharges itself into the Cilician sea. [1088] In the other provinces is
Argos, a lofty fortress near the Taurus, and Nora, now called Neroassus,
in which Eumenes sustained a long siege. In our time it was a
treasure-hold of Sisinus, who attempted to take possession of the
kingdom of Cappadocia. To him belonged Cadena, a royal seat, built after
the form of a city. Situated upon the borders of Lycaonia is Garsauira,
a village town, said to have been formerly the capital of the country.
In Morimene, among the Venasii, is a temple of Jupiter, with buildings
capable of receiving nearly three thousand servants of the temple. It
has a tract of sacred land attached to it, very fertile, and affording
to the priest a yearly revenue of fifteen talents. The priest is
appointed for life like the priest at Comana, and is next to him in
rank.
7. Two provinces only have cities. In the Tyanitis is Tyana,[1089] lying
at the foot of the Taurus at the Cilician Gates,[1090] where are the
easiest and the most frequented passes into Cilicia and Syria. It is
called, “Eusebeia at the Taurus. ” Tyanitis is fertile, and the greatest
part of it consists of plains. Tyana is built upon the mound of
Semiramis, which is fortified with good walls. At a little distance from
this city are Castabala and Cybistra, towns which approach still nearer
to the mountain. At Castabala is a temple of Diana Perasia, where, it is
said, the priestesses walk with naked feet unhurt upon burning coals. To
this place some persons apply the story respecting Orestes and Diana
Tauropolus, and say that the goddess was called Perasia, because she was
conveyed from beyond (πέραθεν) sea.
In Tyanitis, one of the ten provinces above mentioned, is the city
Tyana. But with these I do not reckon the cities that were afterwards
added, Castabala, and Cybistra, and those in Cilicia Tracheia, to which
belongs Elæussa, a small [CAS. 538] fertile island, which Archelaus
furnished with excellent buildings, where he passed the greater part of
his time.
In the Cilician province, as it is called, is Mazaca,[1091] the capital
of the nation. It is also called “Eusebeia,” with the addition “at the
Argæus,” for it is situated at the foot of the Argæus,[1092] the highest
mountain in that district; its summit is always covered with snow.
Persons who ascend it (but they are not many) say that both the Euxine
and the sea of Issus may be seen from thence in clear weather.
Mazaca is not adapted in other respects by nature for the settlement of
a city, for it is without water, and unfortified. Through the neglect of
the governors, it is without walls, perhaps intentionally, lest,
trusting to the wall as to a fortification, the inhabitants of a plain,
which has hills situated above it, and not exposed to the attacks of
missile weapons, should addict themselves to robbery. The country about,
although it consists of plains, is entirely barren and uncultivated, for
the soil is sandy, and rocky underneath. At a little distance further
there are burning plains, and pits full of fire to an extent of many
stadia, so that the necessaries of life are brought from a distance.
What seems to be a peculiar advantage (abundance of wood) is a source of
danger. For though nearly the whole of Cappadocia is without timber, the
Argæus is surrounded by a forest, so that wood may be procured near at
hand, yet even the region lying below the forest contains fire in many
parts, and springs of cold water; but as neither the fire nor the water
break out upon the surface, the greatest part of the country is covered
with herbage. In some parts the bottom is marshy, and flames burst out
from the ground by night. Those acquainted with the country collect wood
with caution; but there is danger to others, and particularly to cattle,
which fall into these hidden pits of fire.
8. In the plain in front of the city, and about 40 stadia from it, is a
river of the name of Melas,[1093] whose source is in ground lower than
the level of the city. It is useless to the inhabitants, because it
does not flow from an elevated situation. It spreads abroad in marshes
and lakes, and in the summer-time corrupts the air round the city. A
valuable stone quarry is rendered almost useless by it. For there are
extensive beds of stone, from which the Mazaceni obtain an abundant
supply of materials for building, but the slabs, being covered with
water, are not easily detached by the workmen. These are the marshes
which in every part are subject to take fire.
Ariarathes the king filled in some narrow channels by which the Melas
entered the Halys, and converted the neighbouring plain into a wide
lake. There he selected some small islands like the Cyclades, where he
passed his time in boyish and frivolous diversions. The barrier,
however, was broken down all at once, and the waters again flowed abroad
and swelled the Halys, which swept away a large part of the Cappadocian
territory, and destroyed many buildings and plantations; it also damaged
a considerable part of the country of the Galatians, who occupy Phrygia.
In compensation for this injury he paid a fine of three hundred talents
to the inhabitants, who had referred the matter to the decision of the
Romans. The same was the case at Herpa; for he there obstructed the
stream of the Carmalas, and, on the bursting of the dyke, the water
damaged some of the places in the Cilician territories about Mallus; he
was obliged to make compensation to those who had sustained injury.
9. Although the territory of the Mazaceni is destitute in many respects
of natural advantages, it seems to have been preferred by the kings as a
place of residence, because it was nearest the centre of those districts
which supplied timber, stone for building, and fodder, of which a very
large quantity was required for the subsistence of their cattle. Their
city was almost a camp. The security of their persons and treasure[1094]
depended upon the protection afforded by numerous fortresses, some of
which belonged to the king, others to their friends.
Mazaca is distant from Pontus[1095] about 800 stadia to the south, and
from the Euphrates a little less than double that distance; from the
Cilician Gates and the camp of Cyrus, a [CAS. 539] journey of six days
by way of Tyana,[1096] which is situated about the middle of the route,
and is distant from Cybistra 300 stadia. The Mazaceni adopt the laws of
Charondas, and elect a Nomōdist, (or Chanter of the Laws,) who, like the
Jurisconsults of the Romans, is the interpreter of their laws. Tigranes
the Armenian, when he overran Cappadocia, treated them with great
severity. He forced them to abandon their settlements, and go into
Mesopotamia; they peopled Tigranocerta, chiefly by their numbers.
Afterwards, upon the capture of Tigranocerta, those who were able
returned to their own country.
10. The breadth of the country from Pontus to the Taurus is about 1800
stadia; the length from Lycaonia and Phrygia, as far as the Euphrates to
the east, and Armenia, is about 3000 stadia. The soil is fertile, and
abounds with fruits of the earth, particularly corn, and with cattle of
all kinds. Although it lies more to the south than Pontus, it is colder.
Bagadania, although a plain country, and situated more towards the south
than any district in Cappadocia, (for it lies at the foot of the
Taurus,) produces scarcely any fruit-bearing trees. It affords pasture
for wild asses, as does a large portion of the other parts of the
country, particularly that about Garsauira, Lycaonia, and Morimene.
In Cappadocia is found the red earth called the Sinopic, which is better
than that of any other country. The Spanish only can rival it. It had
the name of Sinopic, because the merchants used to bring it down from
Sinope, before the traffic of the Ephesians extended as far as the
people of Cappadocia. It is said that even plates of crystal and of the
onyx stone were discovered by the miners of Archelaus near the country
of the Galatians. There was a place where was found a white stone of the
colour of ivory in pieces of the size of small whetstones, from which
were made handles for small swords. Another place produced large masses
of transparent stone for windows, which were exported.
The boundary of Pontus and Cappadocia is a mountainous range parallel
to the Taurus, commencing from the western extremities of Chammanene,
(where stands Dasmenda, a fortress built upon a precipice,) and
extending to the eastern parts of Laviansene. Both Chammanene and
Laviansene are provinces of Cappadocia.
11. When the Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, first governed Asia,
they made treaties of friendship and alliance both with the nations and
with the kings. This honour was conferred upon the other kings
separately and independently, but upon the king of Cappadocia in common
with the nation. On the extinction of the royal race, the Romans
admitted the independence of the Cappadocians according to the treaty of
friendship and alliance which they had made with the nation. The
deputies excused themselves from accepting the liberty which was offered
to them, declaring that they were unable to bear it, and requested that
a king might be appointed. The Romans were surprised that any people
should be unwilling to enjoy liberty, but permitted[1097] them to elect
by suffrage any one they pleased from among themselves. They elected
Ariobarzanes. The race became extinct in the third generation.
Archelaus, who was not connected with the nation, was appointed king by
Antony.
So much respecting the Greater Cappadocia.
With regard to Cilicia Tracheia, which was annexed to the Greater
Cappadocia, it will be better to describe it when we give an account of
the whole of Cilicia.
CHAPTER III.
1. Mithridates Eupator was appointed King of Pontus. His kingdom
consisted of the country bounded by the Halys,[1098] extending to the
Tibareni,[1099] to Armenia, to the territory within the Halys, extending
as far as Amastris,[1100] and to some parts of Paphlagonia. He annexed
to (the kingdom of) Pontus the sea-coast towards the west as far as
Heracleia,[1101] the birth-place of Heracleides the Platonic philosopher,
and towards [CAS. 541] the east, the country extending to Colchis, and
the Lesser Armenia. Pompey, after the overthrow of Mithridates, found
the kingdom comprised within these boundaries. He distributed the
country towards Armenia and towards Colchis among the princes who had
assisted him in the war; the remainder he divided into eleven
governments, and annexed them to Bithynia, so that out of both there was
formed one province. Some people in the inland parts he subjected to the
kings descended from Pylæmenes, in the same manner as he delivered over
the Galatians to be governed by tetrarchs of that nation.
In later times the Roman emperors made different divisions of the same
country, appointing kings and rulers, making some cities free, and
subjecting others to the authority of rulers, others again were left
under the dominion of the Roman people.
As we proceed in our description according to the present state of
things, we shall touch slightly on their former condition, whenever it
may be useful.
I shall begin from Heracleia,[1102] which is the most westerly of these
places.
2. In sailing out of the Propontis into the Euxine Sea, on the left hand
are the parts adjoining to Byzantium, (Constantinople,) and these belong
to the Thracians.
