No More Learning

3. 2. Sublimating the institution. Whereas supporters of the first kind of "institutional psychotherapy" submitted to the existence of the estab- lishments to which they were appointed, trying to use them as best they could on the therapeutic level, those of the second kind of "insti- tutional psychotherapy" engaged in a radical modification of the thera- peutic institution on the basis of a supposed discontinuity between psychiatry and psychoanalysis. Taking place on a completely different scene, involving a completely different type of relationship between patient and therapist, and organizing a different mode and formation of discourse, psychoanalysis appeared as a permanent resource with regard to the problems posed by asylum life, making it possible to readapt the structures of care. It is as if the institution is "sublimated" from within through a sort of collectivization of analytic concepts: transferences become "institutional"37 and fantasies become "collective. " The "political" criticism of psychiatry is then expressed in the name of the logic of the unconscious, and sources of resistance to the truth of desire, the hierarchical structures of institutions, and the socio cultural
? representations of mental illness in which both therapists and patients are caught, are all equally denounced. Just as the hospital of Samt- Alban (Lozere) had been the reference point of the first "institutional psychotherapy," the La Borde clinic at Cour-Cheverny (Loir-et-Cher), opened in April 1953 by Jean Oury and Felix Guattari, represented the model realization of analytic "institutional psychotherapy" and its mam center of diffusion. 38
In a perspective focused on the institution's "interior," it was difficult to get back to what, outside the institution, determines its organization and role. So much so that the correlation of psychiatry with the public domain as organized by the law, which means that the psychiatrist takes on certain functions insofar as he exercises a public mandate, was dissolved in the field of discourses and the imaginary. Thus Tosquelles could say that "the problematic of power as it functions within treatment groups ends up, of itself, being expressed in the field of speech, usually as an imaginary projection in the collective discourse woven in the group in question. "39
The corresponding Italian version--although Franco Basaglia (1924- 1980) challenged the "anti psychiatry" label'0--criticized the asylum apparatus from a political point of view as the privileged site of the contradictions of capitalist society. Born in the very specific context of the law of 14 February 1904, which essentially gave the police and magistrates responsibility for aid to mental patients, and within the framework of Basaglia's experience of the deplorable conditions of the hospitahzation of patients in 1961,when he took over direction of the psychiatric hospital at Gorizia, near Trieste, the Italian current was situated in a decidedly revolutionary perspective. ^1 The Italians rejected the idea of a possible restructuring of the asylum, whether in the form of division into "sectors" or in that of "therapeutic communities," which they suspected of reviving the old apparatus of social control in a toler- ant form;/|2 they turned to practices based on a break with all the institu- tional mechanisms that could reproduce the separation and sequestration of the social life of those who have dealings with psychiatry: "Our action," Basaglia declared, "can only be continued in a negative dimen- sion that, in itself, is a destruction and overcoming that, going beyond the coercive-carceral system of psychiatric institutions ( . . . ) moves onto the
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terrain of violence and exclusion inherent in the socio-political system. "^3 With the aim of working towards the de-institutionalization of responsibility for patients, the Italian movement opted for an open- ing towards non professionals and an alliance with political and trade union forces of the left, which resulted in the constitution of Pskhiatrica Democratka in 1974.
However, it was the English current, coming out of the work of David Cooper (1931-1989), Aaron Esterson and Ronald Laing (1927 1989) on schizophrenics and their family circle, which had the greatest impact in France/^ In the sixties this movement developed a radical critique of psychiatry and its institutional and symbolic violence, accepting Cooper's label of "anti-psychiatry. "^ This violence was not only the physical violence of the constraints of confinement, but also the violence exercised by the analytic rationality that, through its nosological catego- rization, passes off as "mental illness"--which is subject to a specialized competence and calls for the establishment of a relationship of tutelage-- the way in which a subject tries to respond to the oppression of which he has been the victim since birth and which is continued through var- ious institutions delegated by society: family, school, work, etcetera. It is because of the "violence" of the psychiatric institution towards this "experience"--which the subject should take to its extreme limits if he would be "transformed" by it, in a process that Laing describes, in evangelical terms, as "conversion," or metanoia--that its space should be de medicalized and removed from the relations ol power deployed within it. "Instead of the mental hospital, a sort of re servicing factory for human breakdowns, we need a place where people who have trav elled further and, consequently, may be more lost than psychiatrists and other sane people, can find their wayfurther into inner space and time, and back again. ,,/|6 From this came the constitution of the Philadelphia Association, in April 1965, by Cooper, Esterson, and Laing, with the aim of "organising places to welcome people who are suffering from or have suffered from mental illnesses," and to "change the way in which the facts of 'mental health* and 'mental illness* are considered. ",7
Now, whereas these post-War critical currents focus on the psychi- atric institution as the point of problematization, the lectures shift the site by adopting the principle that "before tackling institutions, we have
? to deal with the relations of force in these tactical dispositions that per- meate institutions. "^8 Actually, the notion of the institution harbors a number of inadequacies and "dangers" to which Foucault returns on a number of occasions. First of all, approaching the problem of psychiatry through this notion amounts to starting with given, pre-constituted objects--the group and its functional regularities, the individual who is a member of the group, etcetera--when it would be more appropriate to analyze the procedures of its constitution at the level of dispositions of power and the processes of individualization they involve. Then again, by focusing on an institutional microcosm, one runs the risk of separat- ing it from the strategies in which it is formed and in which it produces its effects, consequently "throwing m," as the lectures say, "all the psychological or sociological discourses. " The problematic of the lee tures can be compared, for example, with that of Erving Goffman's Asylums, to which Foucault pays tribute on a number of occasions. "19 Certainly, one merit of the book is to make it possible to escape from medical rationalizations by "de-specifying" the psychiatric institution, so to speak, by placing it within a range of different structures--school, prison, etcetera--through the perspective of the notion of total institutions [English in original; G. B. J which typify establishments specialized in supervising individuals and controlling their mode of life. But this quasi-ethnographic approach to the asylum institution has its limits. Taking the latter as, in effect, an autonomous "totality," so as simply to situate it in a range of other institutions, it fails to show that the asylum is a response to an evolving historical problematic. Consequently, the nature of the break constitutive of the asylum site can only be thought in a static way, through binary oppositions like inside/outside, being confined/leaving, etcetera, which mark the barriers "to social intercourse with the outside and to departure that" total institutions often build "right into the physical plant, such as locked doors, high walls, barbed wire, cliffs, water, forests, or moors. "30 If, for this image of a "shut up" space, we substitute the idea of "an enclosed space for a confrontation,
the site of a duel, an institutional field in which victory and submission are at stake,"51 then the asylum break acquires a new dimension. This "enclosed" milieu then appears for what it really is: a milieu actively cut out, that is to say, captured from old forms of custody through historical
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PSYCHIA TRIC POWER
processes that make the mad person emerge as someone who is differentiated less by reference to the family than within a technico- administrative field. This is emphasized in the lecture of 5 December 1973: "The mad individual now emerges ( . . . ) as a danger for society, and no longer as someone who may jeopardize the rights, wealth, and privileges of a family. " At the same time, the central place of the psychi- atrist, emphasized by Goffman, takes on another dimension; the psy- chiatrist is not distinguished from the madman by the fact that he is free, but by the fact that he intervenes as an ambassador of the external world, charged with imposing the norms of society within the asylum. He is "someone who must give reality that constraining force by which it will be able to take over the madness, completely penetrate it, and make it disappear as madness. "32
Whereas the problem for Goffman is the problem posed by the institution itself and its functioning, the problem to which the lectures are devoted is that of how a certain technique, connected to social and political structures, authorizes "the rationalization of the management of the individual. "53
From this derives the particular style of an archeology of the psychiatric institution, which, from George III to Charcot, multiplies wonderful panoptic "scenes" that reveal the operations and procedures making up this "microphysics" of power, and break up what solidity the asylum institution had. As the manuscript for the lecture of V\ November 1973 makes clear, by "scene" we should understand, "not a theatrical episode, but a ritual, a strategy, a battle"; scenes which, inserted in the work of the analysis like fragments of mirror, bring together, in a glance, the theoretical implications that the argument will develop.
Approaching the apparatus of psychiatry in this way, by reference to mechanisms of power, weakens the foundation on the basis of which psy- chiatry deployed its theoretical and practical conquests: a requirement of specificity. In fact, from its constitution as a "special medicine" endowed with "special establishments," "specialized" doctors, the psychiatrists, and "special" legislation, the law of 30 June 1838, up until the attempts at transforming its institutional structures just after the war, this idea of a "specificity" of mental medicine constitutes a main theme around which, we can say, the best part of the profession has rallied. 5''
? Course Context 361 4. POINTS OF PROBLEMATIZATION
The analysis of the psychiatric apparatus is structured around three axes: that of power, insofar as the psychiatrist is established as a subject acting on others; the axis of truth, insofar as the insane individual is constituted as an object of knowledge; and the axis of subjectivation, since the subject has to make the norms imposed on him his own.
4. 1. Power. Defined in the seventies with the problematic of knowledge- power, this axis shifts previous questionings. Basically, the first texts, in fact, addressed to psychiatry the question: "What you say is true? Give me the grounds of your truth! " Henceforth the question, the demand is: "Give us the grounds of your power! By what right do you exercise it? In whose name? To what advantage? " "Power" therefore, and no longer "violence" as in the previous works. As a result, there is a change in the paradigmatic figure around which the criticism of the Anglo-Saxon "anti-psychiatrists" was ordered, and which put the question of the "violence" exercised by society in general and psychiatry in particular at its core:55 the schizophrenic. 56
However, when we approach the psychiatric apparatus by reference to the mechanisms of power that organize it, it is the hysteric who, by laying the "trap" of the lie for a doctor like Charcot armed with the highest medical knowledge, paradigmatically portrays the militant underside of psychiatric power. 57 This is why, in Foucault's view, the hysteric deserves the title of the first "militant of anti-psychiatry," as he puts it in the lecture of 23 January 1974, since, by her "maneuvers," she challenges the doctor's role of "responsibility for producing the truth of illness within the hospital space. "5 Foucault can also declare in his contribution to a colloquium organized by Henri Ellenberger in May 1973: "The age of anti-psychiatry began when one suspected, and then, soon afterwards, was sure, that Charcot, the great master of mad- ness, the person who made it appear and disappear, was not the person who produced the truth of the illness, but the one who fabricated its artifice. "59
Now, this power to which the lectures are devoted has a double char- acteristic. In the final instance its point of application is bodies: their distribution in the asylum space, their ways of behaving, their needs,
? 362 PSYCHIA TRIC POWER
their pleasures; in short, it is a power "commanded by all the disposi tions of a kind of microphysics of bodies. " Moreover, the relations of power installed between the psychiatrist and his patient are fundamen- tally unstable, constituted by struggles and confrontations in which points of resistance are present at every moment. This is the case with these "counter maneuvers" by which the hysterics shake Charcot's power, escaping the categorizations to which he wanted to assign them, thereby giving a new impetus to the apparatus of medical power- knowledge on the basis of these resistances, to the point that, Foucault says, "a crisis" is opened up "that had to lead to anti-psychiatry. "60
4. 2. Knowledge and truth. As the lecture of 5 December 1973 recalls, "as a disciplinary system, the asylum is also a site for the formation of a certain type of discourse of truth. " Hence the analyses of the ways in which apparatuses of power and games of truth are articulated. This is the case for the "proto-psychiatric" modality, in which a game is orga- nized around the delirious conviction, within the regime of a "test" in which the doctor is posed as the ambiguous master of reality and truth, or, on the other hand, a game in which the question of truth no longer arises in the confrontation of doctor and patient, since it is now only posed within psychiatric power established as medical science. In this mode of analysis we can see that truth is called upon less as an intrinsic property of statements than at the level of its functionality, through the legitimation it provides for the discourses and practices on the basis of which psychiatric power organizes its exercise, and by the mode of exclusion it authorizes.
4. 3. Subjection (assujettissement). The therapist who approaches the individual to be treated from the outside, at the same time as he resorts to procedures that enable him to extract from this individual his inner subjectivity--questioning, anamnesis, etcetera--puts the subject in the position of having to interiorize the orders and norms imposed on him. In the lecture of 21 November 1973, the problem is also broached from the angle of the modes of subjection that make the subject appear as a complex and variable "function" of regimes of truth and discursive practices.
However, these lectures, which sought to give a sequel, on new bases, to Histoire de lafolie, will remain without future. For, in these years,
? circumstances are such as to give preference to participation in effective action, instead of, as Foucault says, the "scribbling of books. " Thus, from 1972 he recognized that "writing today a sequel to my Histoire de lafolie, which would continue up to the present, is for me without interest. On the other hand, a concrete political action in favor of prisoners seems to me to be highly meaningful. "61 However, at the same time, Foucault was preparing Discipline and Punish. Birth of the Prison.
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1. Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie a I'dge dassique (Paris: Gallimard, 2ml edition, 1972) p. 541. This is omitted from the abridged English translation: Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation. A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1965 and London: Tavistock, 1967).
2. Michel Foucault, "Usage des plaisirs et techniques de soi," in Dits et Ecrits, 1954-1988, ed. D. Defert and F. Ewald, with the collaboration of J. Lagrange (Paris: Gallimard, 1994) vol. 4, p. 545; English translation, "Introduction," The Use of Pleasure. The History of Sexuality, vol. 2, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985) p. 11.
3. Michel Foucault, Maladie mentale et Personnalite (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954) and the modified version of this, Maladie mentale et Psychologie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1962); English translation, Mental Illness and Psychology, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Harper and Row, 1976).
4. Michel Foucault, "Preface" to Folie et Deraison. Histoire de lafolie a /'age dassique (Paris: Plon, 1961) p. vii (omitted from the French 1972 edition and from the English translation); reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 192.
5. "Course summary," above, p. 345-
6. That is, its specificity in relation to both earlier and later studies of the history of
psychiatry. See in particular, E. H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Psychiatry (New York:
Hafner, 1968).
7. Thus, Foucault's "Introduction" to L. Bmswanger, Le Reve et I'Existence, trans. J. Verdeaux
(Paris: Desclee de Brouwer, 1954) denounces the tendency of psychiatrists to consider "the illness as an 'objective process,' and the patient as an inert thing in which the process takes place" p. 104. Reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 109; English translation, "Dream, Imagination and Existence. An Introduction to Ludwig Binswanger's Dream and Existence" trans. Forrest Williams, in M. Foucault and Ludwig Binswanger, Dream and Existence, trans. Forrest Williams and Jacob Needleman, ed. Keith Hoeller, Special Issue from Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. XIX, no. 1,1984 85, p. 66.
8. "La verite et les formes juridiques" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 644; English translation, "Truth and Juridical Forms" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault 1954-1984, Vol. 3: Power, ed. James D. Faubion, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New
Press, 2 0 0 0 ) . See also the interview with Foucault on Radio France, 8 October 1972, "Punir ou guenr": "I think this historical analysis is politically important inasmuch as it is necessary to locate exactly what one is struggling against. "
9- "If the medical personage could isolate madness, it was not because he knew it, but because he mastered it; and what lor positivism would be an image of objectivity was only the other side of this domination" Histoire de lafolie, p. 525; Madness and Civilisation, p. 272.
10. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrils, vol. 3, p. 146; English translation, "Truth and Power" trans. Colin Gordon, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 117.
11. "Theories et institutions penales" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 390; English translation, "Penal Theories and Institutions" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault, 1954-1984, vol. 1: Ethics: subjectivity and truth, ed. Paul Rabinow, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New Press, 1997) p. 17.
12. Michel Foucault, Les Anormaux. Cours au College de France, 1974-1975, ed. V. Marchetti and A. Saomoni (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 1999) pp. 16 20 and pp. 143-144; English translation, Abnormal. Lectures at the College de France 1974-1975, ed. Valerio Marchetti and Antonella Salomoni, English series ed. Arnold I. Davidson, trans. Graham Burchell (New York: Picador, 2003) pp. 16-21 and pp. 154 156.
13. "Les rapports de pouvoir passent a l'interieur des corps" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 229-
14. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" p. 140; "Truth and Power" p. 111.
15. See above, "Course Summary. "
16. L. Bonnafe, "Sources du desalienisme" in Desaliener?
Folie(s) et Societe(s) (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail/Privat, 1991) p. 221.
17. Esprit, 20th year, December 1952, "Misere de la psychiatric La vie asilaire. Attitudes de la societe (Textes de malades, de medecins, d'un infirmier, denoncanl la vie asilaire chroni- cisante, la surpopulation, le reglement modele de 1838). " Foucault refers to this "remarkable number of Esprit" in Maladie mentale et Personnalite, p. 109, n. 1.
? 18. An allusion to the cases of arbitrary confinement, the most famous cases of which arc those
of General Gngorenko, arrested in February 1964 under the charge of anti Soviet activi- ties and confined in the Serbski Institute in Moscow, and Vladimir Borissov, confined in the special psychiatric hospital of Leningrad--for the liberation of whom a campaign was led by Victor Fainberg, supported by some intellectuals including David Cooper and Michel Foucault. See, "Enlermement, psychiatrie, prison" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, pp. 332 360. There was also the confinement ol the dissident Wladimir Boukovski in autumn 1971. See W. Boukovski, Une nouvc/le maladie mentale en URSS: /'opposition (Paris: Le Seuil, 1971).
19- T. Laine, "Une psychiatrie differente pour le malaise a vivre," La Nouvelle Critique, no. 59, December 1972; reprinted in the Editions de la Nouvelle Critique, April 1973, pp. 23 36.
20. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault (Conversazione con Michel Foucault)" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 61; English translation, "Interview with Michel Foucault" trans. Robert Hurley, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 260 [English translation slightly amended; G. B. j.
21. "Michel Foucault. Les reponses du philosophe" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 813-
22. In April 1970 a journal o( the extreme left had already appeared which sought to struggle
against "class psychiatry," Cahiers pour lafolie, a special issue of which, Cles pour Henri Colin, June 1973, was devoted to the security unit for difficult patients ol the Villejuif psychiatric
hospital. The journal Marge devoted its April May 1970 issue to this "rottenness ofpsychiatry. " In November 1973 a pamphlet appeared entitled: Psychiatrie: la peur change de camp, and in December 1973 number O of Psychiatrie el Lutle de classe appeared which put itself forward as "a site of theoretical development for the formation ol slogans promoting a revolutionary con sciousness ol 'social' workers in connection with the battle of the working class" (p. 1). On the role of the "young psychiatrists" see "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 60; "Interview with Michel Foucault," Essential Works oj Foucault, 3, pp. 259 260.
23. Des infirmiers psychiatriques prennent la parole (Paris: Capedith, 1974).
24. M. Burton and R. Gentis, La psychiatrie doit etrefaite/defaitepar lous (Paris: Maspero, 1973).
25. "Le monde est un grand asile" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 433.
26. Maladie menlale el Psychologie, p. 2; Mental Illness and Psychology, p. 2.
27. Histoire de lafolie, p. 40 (omitted from the English translation).
28. "Le jeu de Michel Foucault" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 299; abridged English translation "The Confession of the Flesh," trans. Colin Gordon, in M. Foucault, Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon and others (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980) p. 194. In an unpublished interview with Paul Patton and Colin Gordon of 3 April 1978, Foucault says: "What I study is an architecture. "
29. See above, lecture of 7 November 1973, pp. 14-15.
30. Histoire de lafolie, p. 26; Madness and Civilisation, p. 16.
31. See above, lecture of 6 February 1974, p. 308, where Foucault marks the difference between his problematic and that ol the Anglo-Saxon and Italian anti psychiatry movements that, taking as their target the "violence" exercised by society in general and psychiatry in particular, model themselves on the paradigmatic figure of the "schizophrenic" who, refus- ing to constitute an alienated "lalse self" subservient to social demands, tears off the masks of this everyday violence, and thanks to which, as R. D. Laing says, "the light began to break through the cracks in our all too-closed minds"; R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience and the Bird of Paradise (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967) p. 107; French translation, La Politique de Vexperience. Essai sur I'alienation et I'Oiseau de Paradis, trans. Cl. Elsen (Paris: Stock, 1969), p. 89. See the works of David Cooper: (1) Psychiatry and Antipsychiatry (London: Tavistock Publications, 1967); French translation, Psychiatrie et Anti-psychiatrie,
trans. M. Braudeau (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970); ( 2 ) with R. D. Laing, Reason and Violence (London: Tavistock Publications, 1964); French translation, Raison et Violence. Dix ans de la philosophic de Sartre (1950-1960), trans. J. -P. Cottereau, Avant propos by
J. -P. Sartre (Paris: Payot, 1972). See also F. Basaglia and others, "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico," in Nuovo Politecnico, vol. 19, Turin, 1968; French translation, F. Basaglia, ed. , L'Institution en negation. Rapport su I'hopital psychiatrique de Gon'^ia, trans. I. Bonalumi (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970).
32. "Pouvoir et savoir" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 414.
33- L. Bonnafe, "Le milieu hospitalier au point de vue psychotherapique, ou Theorie et
pratique de I'hopital psychiatrique," La Raison, no. 17,1958, p. 7.
Course Context 365
? 366 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
34- L. Bonnaie, "De la doctrine post-esquirolienne. I. Problemes generaux," Information psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 4, April 1960, p. 423. The reference is to J. E. D. Esquirol, "Memoires, statistiques et hygieniques sur la folie. Preambule," in Des maladies mentaks,
considerees sous les rapports medical, hygienique et medico-legal (Paris: J. B. Bailliere, 1838),
vol. 2, p. 398.
35- L. Bonnafe, "Conclusions des journees psychiatriques de mars 1945," Information
36.
37.
38.
39. 40. 41.
psychialrique, 22ml year, no. 2, October 1945, p. 19.
L. Bonnafe, "De la doctrine post esquirolienne, II. Examples appliques," Information
psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 5, May 1960, p. 580: "The pivot of the service is no longer the asylum, but the town, at the heart of the territory in which the psychiatrist's Junction is exercised, extended to the protection of mental health. "
[aj H. Torrubia, "Analyse et interpretation du transfert en therapeutique institutionelle," Revue de psychotherapie institutionelle, vol. 1, 1965, pp. 83 90. [bj J. Oury, [t| "Dialectique du fantasme, du transfert et du passage a l'acte dans la psychotherapie institutionelle," Cercle d'eludes psychiatriques (Paris: Laboratoire Specia, 1968); [n] "Psychotherapie institutionelle: transfert et espace du dire" Information psychiatrique, vol. 59, no. 3, March 1983, pp. 413-423. | c | J. Ayme, Ph. Rappard, H. Torrubia, "Therapeutique institutionelle," Encyclopedic medico-psychiatrique. Psychiatrie, vol. 3, October 1964, col. 37 930, G. 10, pp. 1-12. On the La Borde clinic, see the special issue of the review Recherches, no. 21, March April 1976: Histoires de La Borde. Dix ans de psychotherapie institutionelle a la clinique de Cour-Cheverny, complement, p. 19.
F. Tosquelles, "La problematique du pouvoir dans les collectifs de soins psychiatriques," La Nef 281'1year,no. 42,January March,1971:L'Antipsychiatrie,p. 98.
He stated this in an intervention at the University ol Vincennes on 5 February 1971: "Personally, I do not accept the label anti-psychiatrist. " (Personal notes; J. L. )
On the Italian movement, see: [a| F. Basaglia, [1] ed. , Che cos'e la psichiatria? (Turin: Einaudi, 1973); French translation, Qu'esl<e qu la psychiatrie? trans. R. Maggiori (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1977); [ii | "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico"; Vlnslilution en negation. Rapport su Vhopital psychiatrique de Gori^ia; fiii] "Le rapport de Trieste," in Pratiques de lafolie. Pratiques etfolie (Paris: Ed. Solin, 1981) pp. 5 7 0 . On this current, see also: [ b | G. Jervis, "II Mito dell'Antipsichiatna," Quaderni Piacentini, no. 60 61, October 1976; French translation, Le Mythe de I'antipsychiatrie," trans. B. de Freminville (Paris: ? d. Solin, 1977). [c| R. Castel, "Le ville natale de 'Marco Cavallo,' embleme de I'antipsychiatrie," Critique, no. 435 436, August-September 1983, pp.