No More Learning

And yet they are not arbitrary fictions of thought. On the contrary, reason, in its uninterrupted pro gress in the empirical synthesis, is necessarily conducted to tliem, when it endeavours to free from all conditions and to comprehend in its unconditioned totality, that which can only be determined conditionally in accordance with the laws of ex
perience. These dialectical propositions are so many attempts to solve four natural and unavoidable problems of reason. --There are neither more, nor can there be less, than this number, because there are no other series of synthetical hy potheses, limiting & priori the empirical synthesis.
The brilliant claims of reason striving to extend its do minion beyond the limits of experience, have been represented above only in dry formule, which contain merely the ground* of its pretensions. They have, besides, in conformity with the character of a transcendental philosophy, been freed from every empirical element ; although the full splendour of the promises they hold out, and the anticipations they excite, mani fests itself only when in connection with empirical cognitions.
In ' he application of tlicm, however, and in the advancing eu
? ? ? OF TUV. INTEHEST OK REABON IK THE ANTINOMIES. 291
largement of the employment of reason, while struggling to rise from the region of experience And to soar to those sub lime ideas, philosophy discovers a value and a dignity, which, if it could but mak* good its assertions, would raise it far above all other departments of human knowledge -- professing, as it does, to present a sure foundation for our highest hopes and the ultimate aims of all the exertions of reason. The questions : whether the world has a beginning and a limit to its extension in space ; whether there exists anywhere, or per haps, in my own thinking Self an indivisible and indestructible unity--or whether nothing but what is divisible and transitory exists ; whether I am a free agent, or, like other beings, am bound in the chains of nature and fate ; whether, finally, there is a supreme cause of the world, or all our thought and spe culation must end with nature and the order of external things --are questions, for the solution of which the mathematician would willingly exchange his whole science ; for in it there is no satisfaction for the highest aspirations and most ardent desires of humanity. Nay, it may even be said that the true value of mathematics --that pride of human reason -- con sists in this : that she guides reason to the knowledge of nature --in her greater, as well as in her less manifestations -- in her beautiful order and regularity, -- guides her, moreover, to an insight into the wonderful unity of the moving forces in the operations of nature, far beyond the expectations of a
experience ; and that she thus encourages philosophy to extend the province of reason beyond all experience, and at the same time provides it with the most
excellent materials for supporting its investigations, in so far as their nature admits, by adequate and accordant intui
tions. --
? but perhaps fortunately for the practical interests of humanity -- reasin, in the midst of her highest anticipations, finds herself hemmed in by a press of opposite and contradictory conclusions, from which neither
her honour nor her safety wUl permit her to draw back. Nor nan she regard these conflicting trains of reasoning with in difference as mere passages at arms, still less can she command peace ; for in the subject of the conflict she has a deep inte rest. There is no other course left open to her, than to reflect with herself upon the origin of this disunion in reason --
V2
Unfortunately for speculation
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whether it may not arise from a mere misunderstanding. Aftet such an inquiry, arrogant claims would have to be given up on both sides ; but the sovereignty of reason over understanding and sense would be based upon a sure foundation.
We shall at present defer this radical inquiry, and in the meantime consider for a little --what side in the controversy we should most willingly take, if we were obliged to become partisans at nll. As, in this case, we leave out of sight alto gether the logical criterion of truth, and merely consult our own interest in reference to the question, these considerations, although inadequate to settle the question of right in either party, will enable us to comprehend, how those who have taken part in the struggle, adopt the one view rather than the other
? --no special insight into the subject, however, having influenced their choice. They will, at the same time, explain to us many
other things by the way--for example, the fiery zeal on the one side and the cold maintenance of their cause on the other ; why the one party has met with the warmest approbations, and the other has always been repulsed by irrecoucilenble preju dices.
There is one thing, however, that determines the proper point of view, from which alone this preliminary inquiry can be instituted and carried on with the proper completeness, -- and that is the comparison of the principles, from which both sides -- thesis and antithesis, proceed. My readers would re mark in the propositions of the antithesis a complete uniformity in the mode of thought and a perfect unity of principle. Iti principle was that of pure empiricism, not only in the explica tion of the phsenomena in the world, but also in the solution of the transcendental ideas, even of that of the universe itself. The affirmations of the thesis on the contrary, were based, in addition to the empirical mode of explanation employed in the series of phenomena, on intellectual propositions ; and its principles were in so far not simple. I shall term the thesis, in view of its essential characteristic, the dogmatism of pure reason.
On the side of dogmatism, or of the thesis, therefore, hi the 'letermination of the cosmological ideas, we find :
I. A. practical interest, which must be very dear to ever; right-thinking man. That the world has a beginning, --that the nature of my thinking self is simple, and therefore in
? ? ? OF TI1E INTEREST OF RF. ASOX TTT THE ANTIKOMI1S. 293
destructible, --that I nm a free agent, and raised above the compulsion of nature and her laws, -- and, finally, that the entire order of things, which form the world, is dependent upon a Supreme--Being, from whom the whole receives unity and connection, these are so many foundation-stones of mo rality and religion. The antithesis deprives us of all these supports,-- or, at least, seems so to deprive us.
2. A speculative interest of reason manifests itself on tin? side. For, ifwe take the transcendental ideas and employ them in the manner which the thesis directs, we can exhibit completely & priori the entire chain of conditions, and under stand the derivation of the conditioned -- beginning from the unconditioned. This the antithesis does not do ; and for this reason does not meet with so welcome a reception. For it can give no answer to our questions respecting the conditions of its synthesis --except such as must be supplemented by another question, and so on to infinity. According to we must rice from given beginning to one still higher every part conducts us to still smaller one every event pre ceded by another event which its cause and the conditions of existence rest always upon other and still higher conditions, and find neither end nor basis in some self-subsistent thing as the primal being.
3. This side has also the advantage of popularity and this constitutes no small part of its claim to favour. The common understanding does not find the least difficulty in the idea of the unconditioned beginning of all synthesis --ac customed, as rather to follow out consequences, than to seek for proper basis for cognition. In the conception of an absolute first, moreover --the possibility of which does not inquire into-- highly gratified to find firmly-esta
blished point of departure for its attempts at theory while the restless and continuous ascent from the conditioned to the tondition, always with one foot in the air, can find no satisfaction.
On the side of the Antithesis, or Empiricism in the deter mination of the cosmological ideas
Wecannotdiscover any such practical interest arising from pure principles of reason, as morality and religion present. On ihe contrary, pure empiricism seems to empty them of all thcit power and influence. If there does not exist Supreme Being
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? 294 TRAN8CENDENTAI. DIAI. ECTIO.
distinct from the world, -- if the world is without beginning,
without a Creator,-- if our wills are not free, and the soul is divisible and subject to corruption just like matter, --the ideas and principles of morality lose all validity; and fall with the transcendental ideas which constituted their theoretical support.
2. But empiricism, in compensation, holds out to reason, in its speculative interests, certain important advantages, far ex ceeding any that the dogmatist can promise us. For, when employed by the empiricist, understanding is always upon its proper ground of investigation --the field of possible experi ence, the laws of which it can explore, and thus extend its cognition securely and with clear intelligence without being stopped by limits in any direction. Here can it and ought it to find and present to intuition its proper object --not only in itself, but in all its relations ; or, if it employ conceptions, upon this ground it can always present the corresponding images in clear and unmistakable intuitions. It is quite un necessary for it to renounce the guidance of nature, to attach itself to ideas, the objects of which it cannot know ; because, as mere intellectual entities, they cannot be presented in any intuition. On the contrary, it is not even permitted to aban don its proper occupation, under the pretence that it lias been brought to a conclusion, (for it never can be,) and to pass into the region of idealizing reason and transcendent conceptions,
where it is not required to observe and explore the laws of nature, but merely to think and to imagine -- secure from being contradicted by facts, because they have not been called as witnesses, but passed by, or perhaps subordinated to the so-called higher interests and considerations of pure reason.
Hence the empiricist will never allow himself to nccept any epoch of nature for the first -- the absolutely primal state ; he will not believe that there can be limits to his out-look into her wide domains, nor pass from the objects of nature, which he can satisfactorily explain by means of observation and mathematical thought --which he can determine synthetically in intuition, to those which neither sense nor imaginatiou can ever present in concreto; he will not concede the existence of a faculty in nature, operating independently of the laws oi nature -- a concession which would introduce uncertainty iut<< the procedure of the understanding, which is puiJcd hvnecet
consequently
? ? ? ? Or THE INTEREST OF BEA. SON IN THE ANTINOMIES. 295
snry laws to the observation of phenomena ; nor, finally, will he permit himself to seek a cause beyond nature, inasmuch as v/e know nothing but and from alone receive an objective basis for all our conceptions and instruction in the unvarying laves of things.
In truth, the empirical philosopher had no other purpose in the establishment of his antithesis, than to check the pre sumption of reason which mistakes its true destination, which ooasts of its insight and its knowledge, just where all insight and knowledge cease to exist, and regards that which valid only in relation to practical interest, as an advancement of the speculative interests of the mind (in order, when con venient for itself, to break the thread of our physical investi- gations, and, under pretence of extending our cognition, con nect them with transcendental ideas, means of which we really know ouly that we know nothing,) -- say. the em piricist rested satisfied with this benefit, the principle ad vanced him would be maxim recommending moderation in the pretensions of reason and modesty in its affirmations, and at the same time would direct us to the right mode of extend ing the province of the understanding, the help of the only true teacher, experience. In obedience to this advice, intel lectual hypotheses and faith would not be called in aid of our practical interests nor should we introduce them under the pompous titles of science and insight. For specula tive cognition cannot find an objective basis any other where than in experience and, when we overstep its limits, our synthesis, which requires ever new cognitions independent of experience, has no substratum of intuition upon which to
--
? build. -- But
empiricism, in relation to ideas, becomes itself dogmatic, and boldly denies that which above the sphere of its phenomenal cognition, falls itself into the
as often happens
error of intemperance --an error which here all the mors reprehensible, as thereby the practical interest of reason re ceives an irreparable injury.
And this constitutes the opposition between Epicureanism* and Platonism.
? It however, still matter of doubt whether Epicurus ever pro- pounded these principles as directions for the objectite em ploy men ol the understanding. If, indeed, they were nothing more than maxim) for
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Both Epicuri g find Plato assert more in their systems than they know. The former encourages and advances science -- although to the prejudice of the practical ; the latter presents us with excellent principles for the investigation of the prac tical, but, in relation to everything regarding which we can attain to speculative cognition, permits reason to append idealistic explanations of natural pbenomena, to the great injury of physical investigation.
3. In regard to the third motive for the preliminary choice
of a party in this war of assertions, it seems very extraordi
nary that empiricism should be utterly unpopular. We should be inclined to believe, that the common understanding would receive it with pleasure --promising as it does, to satisfy it without passing the bounds of experience and its connected order ; while transcendental dogmatism obliges it to rise to conceptions, which far surpass the intelligence and ability of the most practised thinkers. But in this, in truth, is to be found its real motive. For the common
? understanding thus finds itself in a situation, where not even the most learned can have the advantage of it. If it understands little or nothing about these transcendental conceptions, no one can boast of understanding any more ; and although it may not express itself in so scholastically correct a manner as
others, it can busy itself with reasoning and arguments with
out end, wandering among mere ideas, about which one can
always be very eloquent, because we know nothing about them ; while, in the observation and investigation of nature, it would be forced to remain dumb and to confess its utter igno-
the speculative exerciae of reason, he gives evidence therein of a more genuine philosophic spirit than any of the philosophers of antiquity. That, in the explanation of phenomena, we must proceed as if the field of in quiry had neither limits in space nor commencement in time ; that we must be satisfied with the teaching of experience in reference to the mate rial of which the world is composed ; that we must not look for any other mode of the origination of events than that which is determined by the unalterable laws of nature ; and finally, that we snust not employ the hypothesis of a cause distinct from the world to account for a phenome non or for the world itself -- are principles for the extension of specula tive philosophy, and the discovery of the true sources of the principles of morals, which, however little conformed to in the present day, are un doubtedly correct. At the same time, any on* desirous of ignoring, in mere speculation, these dogmatical propositions, need not for that reasos be accused of denying them.
? ? ? OV THE INTEREST OE nEARON.
297
ranee. Thus indolence and vanity form of themselves strong recommendations of these principles. Besides, although it is
a hard thing for a philosopher to assume a principle, of which he can give to himself nc reasonable account, and still more
to employ conceptions, the objective reality of which cannot be established, nothing is rqore usual with the common under standing. It wants something, which will allow it to go to work with confidence. The difficulty of even comprehending a supposition, does not disquiet because-- not knowing what comprehending means-- never even thinks of the suppo sition may be adopting as principle and regards as known, that with which has become familiar from constant use. And, at last, all speculative interests disappear before the prac tical interests which holds dear and fancies that un derstands and knows what its necessities and hopes incite
to assume or to believe. Thus the empiricism of transcen- dentally idealizing reason robbed of all popularity and,
however prejudicial may be to the highest practical prin ciples, there no fear that will ever pass the limits of the schools, or acquire any favour or influence society or with the multitude.
Human reason nature architectonic. That to say, regards all cognitions as parts of possible system, and
hence accepts only such principles, as at least do not incapaci
tate cognition to which we may have attained from being
placed along with others in general system. But the pro positions of the antithesis are of character which renders the completion of an edifice of cognitions impossible. Accord ing to these, beyond one state or epoch of the world there always to be found one more ancient in every part always other parts themselves divisible preceding every event ano ther, the origin of which must itself be sought still higher and everything in existence conditioned, and still not dependent on an unconditioned and primal existence. As, therefore, the antithesis will not concede the existence of a first begin ning which might be available as foundation, complete edifice of cognition, in the presence of such hypotheses, utterly impossible. Thus the architectonic interest of reason, which requires unity--not empirical, but a priori and ra tional, forms natural recommendation for the assertions of the thesis in our antinomy.
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But if any one could free himself entirely from all con siderations of interest, and weigh without partiality the asser tions of reason, attending only to tbeir conteut, irrespective of the consequences which follow from them ; such a person, on the supposition that he knew no other way out of the confusion than to settle the truth of one or other of the conflicting doctrines, would lire in a state of continual hesi tation. To-day, he would feel convinced that the humau will is free ; to-morrow, considering the indissoluble chain of nature, he would look on freedom as a mere illusion, and declare nature to be all-in-all. But, if he were called to action, the play of the merely speculative reason would dis appear like the shapes of a dream, and practical interest would dictate his choice of principles. But, as it well befits a reflective and inquiring being to devote certain periods of time to the examination of its own reason -- to divest itself of all partiality, and frankly to communicate its observations for the judgment and opinion of others ; so no one can be blamed for, much less prevented from placing both parties ou their trial, with permission to defend themselves, free from
intimidation, before a sworn jury of equal condition with themselves -- the condition of weak and fallible men.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Foubtn.
Of the necessity imposed upon Pure Reason of presenting n Solution of its Transcendental Problems.
To avow an ability to solve all problems and to answer all questions, would be a profession certain to convict any phi losopher of extravagant boasting and self-conceit, and at once to destroy the confidence that might otherwise have been reposed in him. There are, however, sciences so constituted, that every question arising within their sphere, must neces sarily be capable of receiving an answer from the knowledge already possessed, for the answer must be received from the same sources whence the question arose. In such sciences it is not allowable to excuse ourselves on the plea of necessary and unavoidable ignorance ; a solution is absolutely requisite. The rule of right and wrona must help us to the knowledg*
? ? ? ? Ot THiNSCElTDENTAL PROBIJiitS.
ot what is right or wroug in all possible caset ; otherwise, the idea of obligation or duty would be utterly null, for we cannot have any obligation to that, which we cannot know. On the other hand, in our investigations of the phenomena of nature, much must remain uncertain, and many questions continue insoluble ; because what we know of nature is far from being sufficient to explain all the phenomena that are presented to our observation. Now the question is : Whether there is in transcendental philosophy any question, relating to an object presented to pure reason, which is un
answerable by this reason ; and whether we must regard the subject of the question as quite uncertain --so far as our knowledge extends, and must give it a place among those
subjects, of which we have just so much conception a* is sufficient to enable us to raise a question --faculty or materials failing us, however, when we attempt an answer.
Now 1 maintain, that among all speculative cognition, the peculiarity of transcendental philosophy that there
no question, relating to an object presented to pure reason, which insoluble this reason and that the profession
of unavoidable ignorance --the problem being alleged to be
the reach of our faculties --cannot free us from th<<
? beyond
obligation to present complete and satisfactory answer. For the very conception, which enables us to raise the question,
must give us the power of answering object, as in the case of right and wrong, covered out of the conception.
But, in transcendental philosophy,
logical questions, to which we can demand a satisfactory answer in relation to the constitution of their object; and the
philosopher not permitted to avail himself of the pretext of necessary ignorance and impenetrable obscurity. These questions relate solely to the cosmological ideas. For the object, must be given in experience, and the question relates to the adequateness of the object to an idea. If the object
transcendental, and therefore itself unknown the question, for example, whether the object --the something, the phsenomenon of which ^internal --in ourselves^ thought --that to say, the soul, in itself simple being or whether there cause of all things, which absolutely ne cessaiy,-- in such cases we arc seeking for our idea an object.
inasmuch as the not to be dis
only the cosmo-
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of which we may confess, that it is unknown to us, though we must not on that account assert that it is impossible. * The cosmological ideas alone possess the peculiarity, that wc can presuppose the object of then and the empirical synthesis
requisite for the conception of that object to be given; and the question, which arises from these ideas, relates merely to the progress of this synthesis, in so far as it must contain absolute totality, -- which, however, is not empirical, as it cannot be given in any experience. Now, as the question here is solely in regard to a thing as the object of a possible experience, and not as a thing in itself, the answer to the transcendental cosmological question need not be sought out of the idea, for the question does not regard an object in itself. The question in relation to a possible experience, is not, what ran be given in an experience in concreto, --but, what is contained in the idea, to which the empirical syn thesis must approximate. The question must therefore be capable of solution from the idea alone. For the idea is a creation of reason itself, which therefore cannot disclaim the obligation to answer or refer us to the unknown object.
It is not so extraordinary as it at first sight appears, that a science should demand and expect satisfactory answers to all the questions that may arise within its own sphere (questiones domestical), although, up to a certain time, these answers may not have been discovered. There are, in ad dition to transcendental philosophy, only two pure sciences of reason ; the one with a speculative, the other with a prac tical content --pure mathematics and pure ethics. Has any
? The question, what is the constitution of a transcendental object, is unanswerable -- we are unable to say what it it ; but we can perceive that the question itself it nothing ; becauss it does not relate to any object that can be presented to us. For this reason, we must consider all the questioni raised in transcendental psychology as answerable, and as really answered ; for they relate to the transcendental subject of all internal phenomena, which is not itself phenomenon, and consequently rot given as an object, in which, moreover, none of the categories --and it is to them that the question is properly directed -- find any conditions of its application. Here, therefore, is a case where no answer is the only proper answer. For a question regarding the constitution of a something,
pletely beyond the sf here of objects and experience, is perfectly nul! and void.
? which cannot be cogitated by any determined predicate--being com
? ? ? OF TRAU8CENDENTAL PBOBLftKB. 301
oue ever heard it alleged that, from our complete and ne cessary ignorance of the conditions, it is uncertain what exact relation the diameter of a circle bears to the circle in rational or irrational numbers ? By the former the sum cannot be given exactly, by the latter only approximately ; and therefore we decide, that the impossibility of a solution of the question is evident. Lambert presented us with a demonstration of this. In the general principles of morals there can be nothing uncertain, for the propositions are either utterly without meaning, or must originate solely in our rational conceptions. On the other hand, there must be in physical science an infinite number of conjectures, which can never become certainties ; because the phsenomena of
nature are not given as objects dependent on our conceptions. The key to the solution of such questions cannot therefore be found in our conceptions or in pure thought, but must lie without us, and for that reason is in many cases not to be discovered ; and consequently a satisfactory explanation can not be expected. The quest'ons of transcendental analytic, which relate to the deduction of our pure cognition, are not to be regarded as of the same kind as those mentioned above ; for we are not at present treating of the certainty of judg ments in relation to the origin of our conceptions, but only of that certainty in relation to objects.
We cannot, therefore, escape the responsibility of at least a critical solution of the questions of reason, by complaints of the limited nature of our faculties, and the seemingly hum ble confession that it is beyond the power of our reason to decide, whether the world has existed from all eternity or had a beginning. --whether it is infinitely extended, or enclosed within certain limits, -- whether anything in the world is simple, or whether everything must be capable of infinite divisibility, -- whether freedom can originate phsenomena, or whether everything is absolutely dependent on the laws and order of nature -- and, finally, whether there exists a being that is com pletely unconditioned and necessary, or whether the existence of everything is conditioned and consequently dependent on something external to itself, and therefore in its own nature
contingent. For all these questions relate to an object, which can be given no where else than in thought. This object is the absolutely unconditioned totality of the synthesis of pha>
? ? ? ? 302 TRAN8CEKDENTAL DIALRf/TTO.
nomena. If the conceptions in our minds do not assist us to some certain result in regard to these problems, we must not defend ourselves on the plea that the object itself remains nidden from and unknown to us. For no such thing or object can be given -- it is not to be found out of the idea in our minds. We must seek the cause of our failure in our idea itself, which is an insoluble problem, and in regard to which we obstinately assume that there exists a real object corre sponding and adequate to it. A clear explanation of the dialectic which lies in our conception, will very soon enable us to come to a satisfactory decision in regard to such a question.
The pretext, that we are unable to arrive at certainty in regard to these problems, may be met with this question, which requires at least a plain answer : From what source do the ideas originate, the solution of which involves you in such difficulties ? Are you seeking for an explanation of certain phenomena ; and do you expect these ideas to give you the principles or the rules of this explanation ? Let it be granted, that all nature was laid open before you ; that nothing was hid from your senses and your consciousness. Still, you could not cognize ta eoncreto the object of your ideas in any
For what is demanded, is, not only this full and complete intuition, but also a complete synthesis and the consciousness of its absolute totality; and this is not possible by meansof any empirical cognition. It follows that your question --your idea is by no means necessary for the explanation of any phsenomenon ; and the idea cannot have been in anysense given by the object itself. For such an object cau never be pre sented to us, because it cannot be given by any possible expe rience.
Whatever perceptions you may attain to, you are still surrounded by conditions --in space, or in time, and you can not discover anything unconditioned ; nor can you decide whether this unconditioned is to be placed in an absolute beginning of the synthesis, or in an absolute totality of the series without beginning. A whole, in the empirical signifi cation of the term, is always merely comparative. The absolute whole of quantity (the universe), of division, of derivation, of the condition of existence, with the question -- whether it is to be produced by a finite or infinite synthesis, no possible experience can instruct us concerning. You will not, foi
? experience.
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303
example, be able to explain the phenomena of a body in ths
least degree better, whether you believe it to consist of simple,
or of composite parts ; for a simple phenomenon -- and just as little an infinite series of composition--can never be presented to your perception. Phenomena require and admit of ex planation, only in so far as the conditions of that explanation are given in perception ; but the sum-total of that which is given in phsenomena, considered as an absolute whole, is itself a perception --and we cannot therefore seek for exp1a>> nations of this whole beyond itself, in other perceptions. Tin explanation of this whole is the proper object of the trans cendental problems of pure reason.
Although, therefore, the solution of these problems is un attainable through experience, we must not permit ourselves to say, that it is uncertain how the object of our inquiries is constituted. For the object is in our own mind, and cannot be discovered in experience ; and we have only to take care that our thoughts are consistent with each other, and to avoid falling into the amphiboly of regarding our idea as a repre sentation of an object empirically given, and therefore to be cognized according to the laws of experience. A dogmatical solution is therefore not only unsatisfactory, but impossible. The critical solution, which may be a perfectly certain one, does not consider the question objectively, but proceeds by inquiring into the basis of the cognition upon which the question rests.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Fifth.
Sceptical Exposition of the Cotmological Problems presented in the/our Transcendental Ideas.
We should he quite willing to desist from the demand of a dog matical answer to our questions, if we understood beforehand 'hat, be the answer what it may, it would only serve to increase our ignorance, to throw us from one incomprehensibility into another, from one obscurity into another still greater, and perhaps lead us into irreconcilable contradictions. If a dog matical affirmative or negative answer is demanded, fs it at all prudent, to set aside the provable grounds of a solution wl\icl>>
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lie before us, and to take into consideration, what advaulagc we ahull gain, if the answer is to favour the one side or the
If it
more easily exposed in its application and consequences, than in the mere representation of its content. This is the great utility of the sceptical mode of treating the questions addressed by pure reason to itself. By this method we easily rid ourselves of the confusions of dogmatism, and establish in its place a temperate criticism, which, as a genuine cathartic, will successfully remove the presumptuous notions of philo sophy and their consequence --the vain pretension to universal science.
that in both cases the answer is mere
other ?
nonsense, we have in this an irresistible summons, to institute a critical investigation of the question, for the purpose of discovering whether it is based on a groundless presup position, and relates to an idea, the falsity of which would be
happens
? If, then, I could understand the nature of a cosmological idea, and perceive, before I entered on the discussion of the subject at all, that, whatever side of the question regarding the unconditioned of the regressive synthesis of phenomcna it favoured, it must either be too great or too small for every conception of the understanding ; -- I would be able to compre hend how the idea, which relates to an object of experience --an experience which must be adequate to and in accordance with a possible conception of the understanding -- must be completely void and without significance, inasmuch as its object is inade quate, consider it as we may. And this is actually the case with all cosmological conceptions, which, for the reason above- mentioned, involve reason, so long ns it remains attached to them, in an unavoidable antinomy. For suppose :
First, that the world has no beginning, --in this case it is too large for our conception ; for this conception, which consists in a successive regress, cannot overtake the whole eternity that has elapsed. Grant that it has a beginning, it is then too small for the conception of the understanding. For, as a be
a time preceding, it cannot be uncondi tioned ; and the law of the empirical employment of the un derstanding imposes the necessity of looking for a higher con
dition of time ; and the world therefore, evidently too small for this law.
The bmne the case with the duvUe answer to the aueic
ginning presupposes
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? 0? tHE COSMOLOCHCAL PROBLEMS. 305
tifiii regarding the extent, in space, of the world. For, if it is infinite and unlimited, it must be too large for every possi ble empirical conception. If it is finite and limited, we have a right to ask --what determines these limits ? Void space is not a self-subsistent correlate of things, and cannot be a final condition--and still less an empirical condition, forming a part of a possible experience. For how can we have any ex perience or perception of an absolute void ? But the absolute totality of the empirical synthesis requires that the uncondi tioned be an empirical conception. Consequently, a finite world is too small for our conception.
Secondly, if every phenomenon (matter) in space consists of an infinite number of parts, the regress of the division is always too great for our conception ; and if the division of space must cease with some member of the division (the sim ple), it is too small for the idea of the unconditioned. For the member at which we have discontinued our division still admits a regress to many more parts contained in the object.
? Thirdly, suppose that every event in the world happens in accordance with the laws of nature ; the causality of a cause most itself be an event, and necessitates a regi'ess to a still higher cause, and consequently the unceasing prolongation of the series of conditions a parte priori. Operative nature is therefore too large for every conception we can form in the synthesis of cosmical events.
If we admit the existence of spontaneously produced events, that of free agency, we are driven, our search for sufficient reasons, on an unavoidable law of nature, and are compelled to appeal to the empirical law of causality, aud we find that any such totality of connection in our synthesis too small for our necessary empirical conception.
Fourthly,-- we assume the existence of an absolutely neces- nary being whether be the world or something in the world, or the cause of the world we must place in time at an infinite distance from any given moment for, otherwise, must be dependent on some other and higher existence. Such an existence in this case, too large for our empirical concep tion, and unattainable the continued regress of any synthesis.
But we believe that everything in the world --be con* dition or conditioned -- contingent every given existeuce
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too small for our conception. For in this case we are com pelled to seek for some other existence upon which, the former depends.
We have said that in all these cases the cosmological idea is either too great or too small for the empirical regress in a synthesis, and consequently for every possible conception of
the understanding. Why did we not express ourselves in a manner exactly the reverse of this, and, instead of accusing
the cosmological idea of overstepping or of falling short of its true aim -- possible experience, say that, in the first case, the empirical conception is always too small for the idea, and in the second too great, and thus attach the blame of these con tradictions to the empirical regress? The reason is this. Possible experience can alone give reality to our conceptions ; without it a conception is merely an idea, without truth or relation to an object. Hence a possible empirical conception must be the standard by whicli we are to judge whether an idea is anything more than an idea and fiction of thought, orwhether it relates to an object in the world. If we say of a thing that in relation to some other thing it is too large or too small, the former is considered as existing for the sake of the latter, and requiring to be adapted to it. Among the trivial subjects of
discussion in the old schools of dialectics was this question : If a ball cannot pass through a hole, shall we say that the ball is too large or the hole too small ? In this case it is indifferent what expression we employ ; for we do not know which exists for the sake of the other. On the other hand, we cannot say -- the man is too long for his coat, but--the coat is too short foi the man.
We are thus led to the well-founded suspicion, that the cos mological ideas, and all the conflicting sophistical assertions connected with them, are based upon a false and fictitious conception of the mode in which the object of these ideas is
? to us ; and this suspicion will probably direct m how to expose the illusion that has so long led us utray from the truth.
presented
? ? ? Or PUKE COSMOT,OGICAL DIALECTIC.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Sixth.
Transcendental Idealism as the Key to the Solution of Pure Cosmological Dialectic.
In the transcendental esthetic, we proved, that everything intuited in space and time -- all objects of a possible experience,
are nothing but phenomena, that mere representations and that these, as presented to us -- as extended bodies, or as series of changes --have no self-subsistent existence apart from human thought. This doctrine call Transcendental Ideal ism. * The realist in the transcendental sense regards these modifications of our sensibility -- these mere representations, as things subsisting in themselves.
? It would be unjust to accuse us of holding the long-decried theory of empirical idealism, which, while admitting the reality of space, denies, or at least doubts, the existence of bodies extended in and thus leaves us without sufficient criterion of reality and illusion. The supporters of this theory find no difficulty in admitting the reality of the phenomena of the internal sense in time nay, they go the length of maintain ing that this internal experience of itself sufficient proof of the real existence of its object as thing in itself.
Transcendental idealism allows that the objects of external intuition --as intuited in space, and all changes in time --as represented by the internal sense, are real. For, as space the form of that intuition which we call external, and without objects in space, no empirical representation could be given us we can and ought to regard extended bodies in as real. The case the same with representations in time. But time and space, with all phenomena therein, are not in themselves things. They are nothing but representations, and cannot
exist out of and apart from the mind. Nay, the sensuous in. ternal intuition of the mind (as the object of consciousness), the determination of which represented by the succession
have elsewhera termed this theory formal idealism, to distinguish from material idealism, which doubts or denies the existence of externa, things. To avoid ambiguity, seems advisable in many cases to ernploj th's term instead of lliai mentioned in the text.
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of different state* in time, is not the real, proper self, as Jt exists in itself -- not the transcendental subject, but only a phenomenon, which is presented to the sensibility of this, to
is, unknown being. This internal phenomenon cannot be admitted to be a self-subsisting thing ; for its condition is time, and time cannot be the condition of a thing in itself. But the empirical truth of phenomena in space and time is guaranteed beyond the possibility of doubt, and sufficiently distinguished from the illusion of dreams or^fancy -- although both have a proper and thorough connection in an experience according to empirical laws. The objects of experience then are not things in themselves,* but are given only iu experi ence, and have no existence apart from and independently of experience. That there may be inhabitants in the moon, although no one has ever observed them, must certainly be admitted ; but this assertion means only, that we may in the possible progress of experience discover them at some future time. For that, which stands in counection with a perception according to the laws of the progress of experience, is real. They are therefore really existent, if they stand in empirical connection with my actual or real consciousness, although they are not in themselves real, that apart from the pro gress of experience. --
There nothing actually given we can be conscious of nothing aa real, except perception and the empirical pro gression from to other possible perceptions. For pheno mena, as mere representations, are real only in perception
rod perception iu fact, nothing but the reality of an em pirical representation, that phenomenon. To call phenomenon real thing prior to perception, means either, that we must meet with this phenomenon in the progress of experience, or means nothing at all. For can say only of
thing in itself that exists without relation to the senses
and experience. But we are speaking here merely of pheno mena in space and time, both of which are determinations ot sensibility, and not of things in themselves. follows that phenomena are not things iu themselves, but are mere repre sentations, which, not given iu us--iu perception, are non existent.
The faculty of sensuous intuition properly receptivity-- Dinge so sich, Sacben an sich.
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a capacity of being affected in a certain manner by representa tions, the relation of which to each other is a pore intuition of space and time --the pure forms of sensibility. These repre sentations, in so far as they are connected and determinable in this relation (in space and time) according to laws of the unity of experience, are called objects. The non-sensuous cause of these representations is completely unknown to us, and hence cannot be intuited as an object. For such an ob ject could not be represented either in space or in time ; and without these conditions intuition or representation is impos sible. We may, at the same time, term the non-sensuous cause of phenoraena the transcendental object -- but merely as a mental correlate to sensibility, considered as a receptivity. To this transcendental object we may attribute the whole con nection and extent of our possible perceptions, and say that it ie given and exists in itself prior to all experience. But the phenomeno, corresponding to are not given as things in themselves, but in experience alone. For they are mere representations, receiving from perceptions alone significance and relation to real object, under the condition that this or that perception --indicating an object -- complete connec tion with all others in accordance with the rules of the unity of experience. Thus we can say the things that really existed in past time, are given in the transcendental object of experi ence. But these are to me real objects, only in so far as can represent to my own mind, that regressive series of pos sible perceptions --following the indications of history, or the footsteps of cause and effect--in accordance with empirical laws, -- that, in one word, the course of the world conducts us to an elapsed series of time as the condition of the present time. This series in past time represented as real, not in itself, but only in connection with possible experience. Thus, when say that certain events occurred in past time, merely assert the possibility of prolonging the chain of experience, from the present perception, upwards to the conditions that determine according to time.
If represent to myself all objects existing in all space and time, do not thereby place these in space and time prior to all experience on the contrary, such representation nothing more than the notion of possible experience, in its absolute completeness. In experience alone are those objects,
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which are nothing but representation*, given. But, when I say, they existed prior to my experience ; this means only that I must begin with . the perception present to me, and fol low the track indicated, until I discover them in some part or region of experience. The cause of the empirical condition of this progression --and consequently at what member therein I must stop, and at what point in the regress I am to find
this member --is transcendental, and hence necessarily incog nizable. But with this we have not to do ; our concern is only with the law of progression in experience, in which objects, that phsenomena, are given. matter of indifference,
? whether say-- may in the progress of experience discover stars, at hundred times greater distance than the most distant of those now visible, or--stars at this distance may be met m space, although no one has, or ever will discover them. For, ifthey are given as things in themselves, without any relation to possible experience they are for me non-existent,
are not objects, for they are not contained in the regressive series of experience. But, these phsenomena must be employed in the construction or support of the cos- mological idea of an absolute whole, --and, when we are dis
cussing question that over-steps the limits of possible ex perience the proper distinction of the different theories of
the reality of sensuous objects of great importance, in order to avoid the illusion which must necessarily arise from the
consequently,
misinterpretation
of our empirical conceptions.
THE ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Seyiktii.
Critical Solution of the Cotmologteal Problem.
The antinomy of pure reason based upon the following dia lectical argument If that which conditioned given, the whole series of its conditions also given but sensuous ob jects are given as conditioned consequently. . . This syllo gism, the major of which seems so natural and evident, intro duces as many cosmological ideas as there are different kinds of conditions in the synthesis of phsenomena, in so far as theae conditions constitute series. These ideas require absolute totality the series, and thus place reason inextricable em
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? 8OLUTIC. N OF THE OOBMOLOGICAX PROBLEM. 311
barrassmem. Before proceeding to expose the fallacy in this dialectical argument, jt will be necessary to have a correct understanding of certain conceptions that appear in it.
In the first place, the following proposition is evident, a>>J
If the conditioned is given, a regress in the series of all its conditions is thereby imperatively required.
indubitably certain :
For the very conception of a conditioned, is a conception of something related to a condition, and, if this condition is itself conditioned, to another condition -- and so on through all the members of the series. This proposition is, therefore, analytical, and has nothing to fear from transcendental criti cism. It is a logical postulate of reason : to pursue, as far as possible, the connection of a conception with its conditions.
If, in the second place, both the conditioned and the con dition are things in themselves, and if the former is given, not only is the regress to the latter requisite, but the latter is really given with the former. Now, as this is true of all the members of the series, the entire series of conditions, and with them the unconditioned is at the same time given in the very fact of the conditioned, the existence of which is possible only in and through that series, being given. In this case,
the synthesis of the conditioned with its condition, is a syn thesis of the understanding merely, which represents things as they are, without regarding whether and how we can cognize them. But if I have to do with phenomena, which, in their character of mere representations, are not given, if I do not attain to a cognition of them (in other words, to themselves, for they are nothing more than empirical cognitions), I am not entitled to say :
? If the conditioned is all its condi given,
tions (as phsenomena) are also given. I cannot, therefore, from the fact of a conditioned being given, infer the absolute totality of the series of its conditions. For phenomena are nothing but an empirical synthesis in apprehension or percep tion, and are therefore given only in it. Now, in speaking of phasnomena, it does not follow, that, if the conditioned is given, the synthesis which constitutes its empirical condition is also thereby given and presupposed ; such a synthesis can be established only by an actual regress in the series of con
ditions. But we are entitled to say in this case : that a regret* te the conditions of a conditioned, in other words, that ? continuous empirical synthesis is enjoined; that, if the condi
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TBAKSCENDENTAIi D1ALSCTI0.
tions are not given, they lire at least required; and that wc are certain to discover the conditions in this regress.
We can now see that the major in the above cosmologies]
syllogism, takes the conditioned in the transcendental
cation which it has in the pore category, while the minor speaks of it in the empirical signification which it has in the category as applied to phenomena. There therefore, dia lectical fallacy in the syllogism-- tophisma figura dictionit. But this fallacy not consciously devised one, but per fectly natural illusion of the common reason of man. For, when thing given as conditioned, we presuppose in tlie major its conditions and their series, unperceived, as were, and unseen because this nothing more than the logical requirement of complete and satisfactory premisses for given conclusion. In this case, time altogether left out in the connection of the conditioned with the condition they are supposed to be given in themselves, and contemporaneously.
moreover, just as natural to regard phenomena (in the minor) as things in themselves and as objects presented to the
pure understanding, as in the major, in which complete ab straction was made of all conditions of intuition. But under these conditions alone that objects are given. Now we overlooked remarkable distinction between the conceptions. The synthesis of the conditioned with it. i condition, and the complete series of the latter (in the major) are not limited time, and do not contain the conception of succession. On the contrary, the empirical synthesis, and the series of con ditions in the phenomeual world -- subsumed in the minor -- are necessarily successive, and given in time alone. follows that cannot presuppose in the minor, as did in the major, the absolute totality of the synthesis and of the series therein represented for in the major all the members of the series are given as things in themselves --without any limitations or conditions of time, while in the minor they are possible only in and through successive regress, which cannot exist, ex
cept phenomena.
be actually carried into execution in the world
After this proof of the viciousness of the argument com monly employed in maintaining cosmological assertions, both parties may now be justly dismissed, as advancing claims without grounds or title. But the propess has not been
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? SOLUTION Of TUX COSIIOLOGIOAL PROBLEM. 3] 3
ended, by convincing them that one or both were in the wrong, and had maintained an assertion which was without valid grounds of proof. Nothing seems to be clearer than that, if one maintains : the world has a beginning, and ano ther : the world has no beginning, one of the two must be right. But it is likewise clear, that, if the evidence on both sides is equal, it is impossible to discover on what side the truth lies ; and the controversy oontinucs, although the par ties have been recommended to peace before the tribunal of reason. There remains, then, no other means of settling the question than to convince the parties, who refute each other with such conclusiveness and ability, that they are disputing about nothing, and that a transcendental illusion has been mocking them with visions of reality where there is none. This mode of adjusting a dispute which cannot he decided upon its own merits, we shall uuw proceed to lay before our readers.
Zeno of Elea, a subtle dialectician, was severely reprimanded by Plato as a sophist, who, merely from the base motive of exhibiting his skill in discussion, maintained and subverted the same proposition by arguments as powerful and convinc ing on the one side as on the other. He maintained, for ex ample, that God (who was probably nothing more, in his view, than the world,) is neither finite nor infinite, neither in mo tion nor in rest, neither similar nor dissimilar to any other thing.