The
characteristic
signs of this age were great dis-
coveries and inventions.
coveries and inventions.
Poland - 1881 - Poets and Poetry of Poland
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? THREE GREATEST POLISH POETS.
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? POETRY OF POLAND.
The rise and progress of Polish Poetry and general liter-
ature may be divided in five distinct epochs, to- wit :
First Epoch -- Called Piast- Jagellon Epoch, from the year
1000 to 1500.
Second Epoch -- That of King Sigismund, and extending
from 1500 to 1620.
Third Epoch -- The Jesuit Epoch, from 1620 to 1750.
Fourth Epoch -- Known as the Classic Epoch (or Kon-
arski^ Epoch), from 1750 to 1822.
Fifth Epoch -- The Romantic Epoch, commencing with
the appearance of Adam Mickiewicz and extending up to the
present time.
FIEST EPOCH.
Piast-Jagellon. Which may be considered as the Morning
Star of Polish Literature. It dates from the intro-
duction of Christianity to the time when printing came
into general use -- 1000-1500.
Before the tenth century the history of Polish Poetry
is rather dim and uncertain. It is only since the intro-
duction of Christianity into Poland, during the reign of
Mieczyslas I, that the Polish literature assumed a per-
ceptible shape. With the advance of civilization the
idols created in bygone days, before which the people
bowed, were one by one demolished, and the prejudices
17
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? 18 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
of the past so thoroughly subverted that in a short
time scarcely a vestige of them was left. We have,
indeed, old reminiscences of songs, fables, and tradi-
tions, but we find them all pervaded in exaggeration
and superstition.
In this interesting period we had poems, secular
songs, and other kinds of rhythmical compositions, be-
cause circumstances surrounding our people -- such as
wars, victories, and defeats ; weddings, funerals, and
national ceremonies -- naturally called into existence the
feeling of poetical inspiration ; hence bards appeared
who were the creators of these compositions. We had
also religious poetry, because from time immemorial
our people sung in churches in the Polish language;
but the relics of the original sacred poetry are very
scarce, since in the progression and refinement of the
Polish language these compositions were, so to speak,
made over, and hence many of them lost the stamp of'
their originality.
In the fifteenth century Polish Poetry made but little
progress ; indeed, we may say it stood as it was in the
age of Piast -- in its infancy. Scholastic philosophy and
the Latin tongue stifled, as it were, the native vein of
the Polish songs, -- scarcely the traces of a few were pre-
served. Toward the end of the fifteenth century, when
our people became more numerous and stronger, our
poets also began to assume more distinct and promi-
nent places. We no longer rest on conjectures and in-
ferences, but upon monumental evidences. Sacred
poetry was founded upon several renditions of the
Psalms, as also upon sacred songs translated from the
Bohemian, and the secular rested upon a wider range
and continual improvement on the Piast period. Hence
the rhythmical compositions of that period not being
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 19
characterized by any especial shading of poetry, we will
only classify the remaining traces and monuments.
'l. Relics of sacred poetry. 2. Of secular rhyth-
mical creations. In fact we could mention some dra-
matic souvenirs of those ages, but as they are of no
great significance, we leave that part to the pen of a
special inquirer.
RELICS OF SACRED POETRY.
After the introduction of Christianity, the Polish
Poetry, being under the influence of the civilization of
"Western Europe, began to flourish very early in sacred
or church songs ; although these songs were chiefly
translations from the Bohemian tongue, or, we should
rather remark, they were sort of made over.
Of the earliest poetic compositions nothing has yet
been found. Whether they had been wholly lost, or
were defaced by continual use in handling and tran-
scribing, is uncertain ; but as no religion has ever done
without songs and chants, we may naturally presume
that such had existed. Songs and chants of that kind
form the nucleus of every nation's poetry and music, and
it was in such rhythmical composition that the Polish
language . began to put forth its shoots, to refine and
improve. Pious simplicity especially characterizes these
compositions; intrinsically they have no poetical worth,
being as it were only prose un skillfully versified.
From the most important of these compositions
which came down to our times, and which deserve
notice, is :
1. "Boga Rodzica" (the Mother of God), origi-
nally composed by St. Adelbert. This celebrated chant
was composed in the Bohemian language, and was sung
by the Poles before the commencement of every battle,
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? 20 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
and is to this day sung during the divine services in the
Cathedral of Gniezno. The author of this celebrated
chant was born in 950 in Bohemia, and was the Bishop
of Prague. Being persecuted by the Bohemians, he
removed at first to Hungary, and then to Poland.
That was during the reign of Mieczyslas I, where he
was instrumental in spreading the newly introduced
doctrines of Christianity. In the year 995, with the
advice of Boleslas the Great, King of Poland, he went
to Prussia to instruct the pagans of that country in
Christianity, and suffered the death of a martyr at
Fishhausen. Bole. -las the Great bought his body from
the Prussians and had it buried with great ceremony at
Gniezno. Otto III, the Emperor of Germany, visited
his grave.
2. Fiftieth Psalm from thirteenth century.
3. Sorrows of the Mother of God under the Cross
of the Redeemer.
4. Psalter of Margaret, the Princess of the Mora-
vians, from fourteenth century ; but it is not certain
whether the production belongs to Margaret, the wife
of Louis, King of Hungary, or to Maria, the King's
eldest daughter. From certain passages there are
traces giving us to understand that it was the first trial --
the first translation of the psalter.
5. The Psalter of Queen Hedwige, from fifteenth
century -- the two first psalms.
6. Be Praised the Queen (Salve Regina), from the
year 1406.
Of the names of the authors of religious songs of
those days the following are known to us :
John Witowski, the companion of Ladislaus ? okietek,
who composed a song on the sufferings of our Lord,
which was sung in Poland during Lent.
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 21
John Opalin? ski, the bishop of Posen, a great lover
of music and good cheer. He wrote a song about the
Ascension ; the Immaculate Virgin Mary ; a song
about St. Adelbert ; live songs about St. Peter, and
six about St. Paul. These songs were sung by the
religious brotherhood of Posen.
John Preworszczyk, from fifteenth century, who
collected a small volume of ''Anthems " (1435). This
collection contains originals and translations from the
Latin, and the title is also Latin.
Andrew from SIupia, a Benedictine monk, wrote
songs of the Queen of Heaven ; also hymns to Jesus
Christ and others. These compositions are superior to
any previously written.
At that period the Poles had not come to full civili-
zation, and yielded to the influences of Western
Europe. Their poetry began at once to assume a
higher grade, and became more assimilated with music,
full of sweet harmony. Between 965-1040, however,
they still sang the old songs. The boors guarding the
bordering Castles during the reign of Boleslas the
Romantic, about King Popiel, were commonly sung by
young girls, and were not given up until the death of
Boleslas the Great. There were also many dumas ,
about the Tartars, who, in the thirteenth century, about
every twenty years made incursions into Poland ; but
after a while these songs fell into disuse:
There were also many ritual songs. The fragments
of these compositions attest their antiquity. Many of
these were made over into Christian songs, leaving,
however, the traces of some primitive words originally
used, which plainly identify them as the relics of old
times.
The wedding songs were preserved the best of any
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? 22 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
during almost eight centuries. These songs seem to
possess an idyllic tendency, and have come down even
to the present time in their primitiveness. From these
remnants the following deserve mention :
1. Congratulatory song to King Casimir I, begin-
ning with the words " Welcome, welcome, our dear
host. "
2. Plaintive songs of Boleslas the Great, which
Martin Gallus translated into Latin.
3. Song in honor of Boleslas, surnamed " The
Crooked-Mouthed. "
4. Song describing the assassination of Ludgarda
by her husband Przemyslas.
5. Song about Albert, the Justice of the City of
Cracow.
6. Song about Yitold.
7. Song concerning the calamity of Bukowina.
The most distinguished authors of those times are :
Andrew GaIka, the Professor in the Academy of
Cracow, and Canon of St. Thomas' Church, lived in
fifteenth century. Lie composed a song about Wick-
liffe, who encouraged Huss's religious views among the
Poles.
Adam S? winka, the Cathedral Canon of Cracow, and
Secretary of Jagello, lived in fifteenth century. He
wrote beautiful elegiac verses in the Latin tongue ;
epitaph on the death of Queen Hedwige ; composition
on the death of Zawisza*, surnamed "The Black. "
Besides these he wrote a heroic poem -- " De rebus
gestis ac dictus memorabilibus Casimiri Secundi Polo-
niae Regis inclitissimi. " These songs were translated
into Polish by Louis Kondratowicz.
Conrad Celtes wrote "Carmen ad Yistulam," de-
* A celebrated Polish hero.
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? POETE? Y OF POLAND. 23
scribing the channel of the river Vistula ; "Salinaria
ad Janum Terinum," describing the salt mines of
Wieliczka. His influence fired the Polish youth to the
Koman Classic literature.
Celtes was born in Germany in 1459, and was
crowned with a wreath by the Emperor of Germany
for his Latin poetry. While visiting for scientific pur-
poses Rome, Venice, lllyria, and Panonia, he came to
Cracow to hear Albert, from Brudziewa, lecture on
Astronomy. He remained in Cracow two years, divid-
ing his time in the study of astronomy, reading the
classics, and writing poetry in Latin, breathing his
love to Hasilina, a Cracovian maiden, -- as also enjoy-
ing the literary society of the young academicians. He
died in 1508.
SECOND EPOCH.
Called ? i The Sigismuxd Epoch. '' 1 Golden Advent of Polish
Poetey-- 1500-1620.
In the Second Epoch we see another, a wider, and
a more beautiful field opening before us. What was
only in the bud is in this epoch in full bloom. For-
merly it was only the light of the moon struggling to
penetrate through the darkness of ages. Now the
golden rays of the sun throw a new halo and form
enchantingly mingled colors of the rainbow. In those
days the historian was anxiously looking for the small-
est possible traces, but now in the abundance of pro-
ductions his task is only to select what is the best.
Weary of traveling amidst the woodless and track-
less prairies, we begin with pleasure, and hope to see
the accounts of true literature springing up. from the
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? 24 POETS AND POETEY OF POLAND.
inner life of a developing people and multiplying in
the production of poets, orators, and historians. It
was still more singular that the advance was made in
two different languages -- the Polish and the Latin --
equally well cultivated. It seemed as if two litera-
tures began to bloom all at once in one and the same
people. Thus we begin the sixteenth century.
The characteristic signs of this age were great dis-
coveries and inventions. At no previous time was
there so much anxiety and lively desire to study and
ascertain the inherent qualities of Nature ; never be-
fore the spirit of inquiry and searching after was wider
than in this epoch of Columbus, Gama, Raphael,
Copernicus, Galileo, and Guttenberg ; the world be-
came broader and more expansive by bold conception
of one man ; received a new world from the hands of
another, and if in accordance with the system of the
Creator himself, it was built over anew as if by the en-
chanter's hand ; the times of chivalry disappeared ;
Art thrusts the barbaric weapon out of the hands of
the stronger ; knowledge subverts the idols of scholas-
tics ; and, finally, that the ideal should not be lost,
Ariosto, Camoens, Cervantes, and their compeers, ap-
pear upon the stage. Perhaps at no period so many
eminent men made their appearance at the helm:
Leo X, Charles Y, Francis I, Sigismund the Old,
Henry YIII, Soliman, Shah Ismael, and Shah Akbar.
Amidst the turbulence of those days, there was one
country beyond the confines of Western Europe occu-
pying the common sphere of knowledge shed by the
light of Christianity, which quietly progressed in the
general improvement, in the science of government,
literature, and general enlightenment.
In their active life the Poles nursed their own ideas,
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? POETKY OF POLAND. 25
in shaping and by degrees unfolding their natural char-
acter, and thus the Polish nation, by uninterrupted pro-
gression, was nearing to her maturity.
At this epoch Polish Poetry and Polish Music kept
even pace with other branches of natural advancement.
Poets of great distinction appeared, their compositions
shedding a great luster over the national literature --
Nicholas Key, John Kochanowski, Klonowicz, Miaskow-
ski, and others. Besides these there were Polish poets
who wrote in the Latin tongue, as for instance :
Daxtyszek, who is the author of " De virtutis et
honore differentia Somnium"; "Carmen Extempora-
rum de victoria insigni Sigismundi Regis ''; " De nos-
trorum temporurn Calamitatibus " ; "Jonas propheta
de interitu civitatis Gedanensis "; " Epigramata varia,"
etc. etc.
Paul Krosnianin also sung for posterity many
memorable things: "Jureditum Sigismundi I, Regis
Poloniae "; " De nuptiis Sigismundi Regis Poloniae et
Bonae Ducis Mediolani hliae," etc. etc.
Clemens Jaxicki. All of his poetry belongs to
lyric compositions. Their smoothness reminds the
scholar of Ovid, and on account of the outpouring of a
great feeling he can be justly compared to Catullus and
Tibullus. This epoch comes down to the year 1620.
THIRD EPOCH.
Called the Jesuit Period -- 1620-1750.
A distracted state of the country in consequence of
internal quarrels and wars caused also the decadence in
Polish literature. It is with much regret and reluctance
that this fact is stated. The deviation from the right
way of a single age caused the retrogression of Poland ;
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? 26 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND. ?
and while all countries surrounding us were advancing
in light, we were thrown into darkness and became, as
it were, the sport of a relentless fate. Sad, indeed,
is the lesson received from our forefathers, that retro-
gression from light is far more detrimental to the hap-
piness of a nation than the simplicity of ignorance.
After the death of Jagellons and Stephen Batory,
many misfortunes came over our people. Incursions
of enemies and internal dissensions caused many suf-
ferings to the Republic. As if to compensate for this
retrogression, immortal heroes appeared on the stage
of action. Z? o? ? kiewski, Czarnecki, Chodkiewicz, and
John Sobieski shed upon their country a true, heroic
luster, as they not only fought for their own country,
but for entire Christendom.
We should not very much transgress if we said that
in this period we show but few distinguished names in
poetry. Zimorowicz, Gawin? ski, Mortszyn, Kochowski,
Elizabeth Druzbacka, and Prince Jab? onowski belong to
this period, and we have every reason to be proud of
them. This period extends from Sigismund III to
Stanislaus Augustus.
FOURTH EPOCH.
Pseudo-Classic, or Konarski's Epoch, or Revival of Gen-
eral Knowledge and Literature in Poland.
The unpropitious times of Sigismunds under the
blasts of which the flowers of Polish Poesy began to
wither had passed away. The circumstances, how-
ever, and elements of this new period were very favor-
able toward reviving, regenerating, and improving the
almost neglected branches of literature. The languish-
ing powers of the Polish Muse were all of a sudden
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 27
strengthened and exalted as if by the enchanter's
wand. Poets like Karpin? ski, Trembecki, Woronicz,
Kniaznin, Krasicki, Wengierski, Szymonowicz, Dmuch-
owski, and others appeared in the galaxy. Authors of
great distinction in other branches of literature began
to multiply with astonishing rapidity. The King him-
self, being a learned man, encouraged men of genius
with great magnanimity.
The beginning of this desirable revival was chiefly
owing to Konarski and his companions, who, being-
educated in France under the protection of Stanislaus
Leszczyn? ski, on their return to their native land brought
fresh ideas with them regarding social science and liter-
ature, and hence it was that a French classic literature
was inducted into Poland similar to the French liter-
ature existing during the reign of Louis XI Y. Konar-
ski compelled the Jesuits to adopt these reforms, and
having obtained the powerful assistance of Joseph and
Andrew Za? uski, -- bishops of great learning and
influence -- was able to thus effect the salvation of
their countrymen who through former wars and inter-
nal dissension had so unfortunately retrograded from
their former greatness.
During the last years of the reign of Augustus III
the Polish literature was enriched by works of great
worth on history, bibliography, theology, etc. Minas-
owicz wrote good poetry and translated into the Polish
language ancient classics. Nagurczewski translated
the works of Homer, Yirgil, and Cicero. Jab? onowski
rendered into Polish the fables of ^Esop and Telem-
achus.
As the nineteenth century was rapidly approaching,
learned men and poets found protection and assistance
in the houses of great magnates; and Pu? awy, the resi-
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? 28 POETS AND POETKY OF POLAND.
dence of princes Czartoryiski, became the dwelling-
place of the Polish muse.
In the year 1800 there sprung up at Warsaw u The
Society of the Friends of Learning. " Its members
were men of great learning, and vigorous writers; many
of the poets enlisted under that auspicious banner.
The object of that society was to preserve from oblivion,
and enrich, the wealth of the Polish literature. This
National Society gave a great impetus to strenuous
endeavors by men of genius to write. Such men as
Woronicz, Niemcewicz, Albertrandy, Lelewel, Bandt-
kie, Sniadecki, Czacki, Linde, Ossolin? ski, and others
appeared upon the stage of literary fame. Each of
these celebrated men not only contributed much to the
general literature of their country, but exerted great
influence over the tenor and literary taste of those
days. Every one of them had a direct bearing on the
progression of literature, and for that reason there was
an uncommon advance in poetry, history, and natural
sciences.
Although the compositions of at least a part of this
period were somewhat affected by French idioms and
inflation, yet the strength of the national current pre-
vailed and preserved the native purity of language and
ideas unharmed.
FIFTH EPOCH.
Pseudo-Romantic ok Mickiewicz's Epoch -- Extending from
the Year 1822 to the Present Day.
Amidst the many violent political shocks in Europe,
which only ended with the downfall of Napoleon the
Great and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, there also
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 29
came changes in the intellectual world. Europe got
rid of mediaeval excrescences and conceits !
Thinking men must admit that there are moments
in the lives of nations as well as of individuals when
the mind, rocked by the storms of adversity, longs for
quietness and rest. When we see that the happiness
which we had been seeking, the great aims for which
we have been striving with so much faith and devoted-
ness, have come to nothing, that all our troubles and
endeavors have been of no avail, then it is that we turn
our languishing eyes into the past when we thought we
were happy, though in reality we were only compara-
tively so, not knowing that it might and should be better.
We look as if into the mirror, into the luster of sweet
and pleasing remembrances of departed years, since
now they seem to be more beautiful and more poetic,
just because they will never return. Such time is pro-
pitious to the unfolding and developing into bloom of
historical poetry. Such an epoch in modern Europe
was the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The political and intellectual storms of the last hun-
dred years left after them banished hopes, a void, and a
faintness. From the smoldering ashes and moss-over-
grown ruins the mental powers, rent by doubts and a
wounded heart which the present could not satisfy, the
yearning voice spoke forth for the feeling and faith, for
the greatness and poetry of olden times. This was in
consequence of a reaction of the past.
As it always happens that when there is a new
change to take place in the kingdom of imagination
immediately there is born a new generation willing and
ready to second and support it, so it was at this
period. Classicism began to show every day more and
more plainly that its time was about over. In the
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? 30 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
minds of the highest cultivation it began to lose, gradu-
ally, its prestige, and although no one could see at the
time what should take its place, everyone felt that its
decadence was at hand, when lo ! a single bard ap-
peared on a newly erected stage, and pronounced the
word Homa/nticism. Literary men gave him a willing
ear. The apostles of a new poetic faith began to in-
crease and multiply and with much enthusiasm spread
the new doctrine of poetic inspiration, and thus the
new Phoenix was born. The originator of the Roman-
tic School was Adam Mickiewicz. It will ever be a
memorable time in the history not only of the Polish
but of European poetic literature. Witwicki, Gos-
czyn? ski, Zaleski, Gos? awski, and others, propelled by
the current of their genius, joined the new camp, and
having sanctioned the new doctrine, upheld it with the
force of their poetic powers. They struck the strings
which up to this period were not only untouched but
unknown. The self-created spirit broke the shackles
of former days -- shackles that so strictly bound the free-
dom and spirit of poetic inspiration to certain laid down
poetic rules in composition. Then it was that the poetic
flow began to gush out from the eternal spring of love
and phantasy. The Polish nationality received this
new outgrowth with great approbation and delight,
which is still in popular favor, and we think will con-
tinue so for generations to come.
The creations of our poets of this period are almost
in every instance breathing with a peculiarly happy,
heartfelt, and lively serenity of the spirit. Although
sadness and tearfulness preponderate in their strains,
yet it can be plainly seen that they are pervaded with
a strong belief in the guardianship of Providence over
the affairs of this world, which in its nature is hopeful
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 31
and noble, for it assures sooner or later the additional
triumph over the power of falsehood and evil, contend-
ing against them and temporarily restraining their in-
fluence over the world.
Unlike the literatures of other nationalities, breath-
ing doubts, grief, or repulsive flattery, or replete with
metaphysical mysticism, which loses itself in the un-
fathomable, our ideals had something in them of re-
ality, and in almost all poetic creations of. our bards
there is an undercurrent of religiously patriotic love of
country, deeper, and yet more purely understood, than
in any other literature.
As to the introduction of this pseudo-romantic style
of writing, its votaries could not precisely define what
they wished and where they were tending, because no
one precisely understood upon what system this Ro-
manticism was founded.
It must be remembered that heretofore the French
system stood preeminent in the Polish literature, but
now the time had come to cut loose from it, and Polish
litterateurs began to consider the poetic elements
governing the middle ages and also giving much
weight to the German style. Happily for the Poles
that the deliberations of these men served as a protec-
tion in the incubation of the style purely national.
After the ebullition of the first youthful enthusiasm
was over, our poets began to examine their strength,
but finding it as yet very undefined they turned their
attention to different but inexhaustible sources -- the
treasures of popular poetry, which led to the love of
the supernatural and miraculous, and to the fresh tra-
ditions of the great past, which they wished to preserve
and to perpetuate by their songs.
But what was the aim of these poets ? It was to
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? 32 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
bring nearer to the sight the local phenomena of exist-
ence, to increase the light, to make the home history
more interesting, and to preserve in the mirror of
poetic art the hereditary thoughts and feelings, as also
the remembrances upon which is founded, and from
which emanates, the individuality of national existence.
All the above mentioned poets, albeit different in the
tendencies of their genius, meet at the same point, that
is, in the texture and concatenation of thought, the
national feeling.
During the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, and
subsequently the Kingdom of Poland, and especially
until the year 1825, the whole of our literature flowed
as it were in one and the same channel ; but since the
advent of Brodzin? ski different tendencies began to
spread over the country. Civilization had extended its
blessings all over the Polish nation, and at the same
time had awakened great poetic talent.
Small poetical circles were formed in the Kingdom
of Poland, in Lithuania and that part of Poland called
Little Russia, comprising Podolia, Yolhynia and
Ukraine, forming as it were so many different and
distinct pleiads, but shining in the same heavens and
constituting our whole literature. Padura, Zaleski,
Goszczyn? ski, Olizarowski, Groza, and others, but they
were all outstripped by Brodzin? ski' } s "Wies? aw" and
Malczewskie "Marya. " The first was well under-
stood, but the other seemed incomprehensible at first,
but now he is reckoned among the first poets of Poland.
But the grand center of poetic power was Adam
Mickiewicz, the creator of a new and splendid epoch
in Polish Poetry, the man who accomplished a twofold
task, that of gathering in his own personality the spirit
of the whole nation and raising up the Polish Poetry
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 33
to the rank of the European muse. This he accom-
plished most successfully.
In Germany the Goethe epoch was passing way.
The era of English poetry was beginning to change by
the appearance of Lord Byron and Walter Scott.
In France there were Lamartine and Victor Hugo.
Between these poets and Mickiewicz there was that
kindred relationship which can only exist among men
of great genius at the same time and without any re-
gard to nationality.
The imitators of Mickiewicz did not exactly equal
his genius. Among the most prominent of these could
be counted Odyniec, Alexander, Chodz? ko, Witwicki,
Massalski and Julian Korsak.
With the year 1831 a new inspiration seemed to
have taken hold of the whole Polish nation, and the
Polish literature also took a new turn, that of a moral
and a warm patriotic tendency.
? THREE GREATEST POLISH POETS.
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? POETRY OF POLAND.
The rise and progress of Polish Poetry and general liter-
ature may be divided in five distinct epochs, to- wit :
First Epoch -- Called Piast- Jagellon Epoch, from the year
1000 to 1500.
Second Epoch -- That of King Sigismund, and extending
from 1500 to 1620.
Third Epoch -- The Jesuit Epoch, from 1620 to 1750.
Fourth Epoch -- Known as the Classic Epoch (or Kon-
arski^ Epoch), from 1750 to 1822.
Fifth Epoch -- The Romantic Epoch, commencing with
the appearance of Adam Mickiewicz and extending up to the
present time.
FIEST EPOCH.
Piast-Jagellon. Which may be considered as the Morning
Star of Polish Literature. It dates from the intro-
duction of Christianity to the time when printing came
into general use -- 1000-1500.
Before the tenth century the history of Polish Poetry
is rather dim and uncertain. It is only since the intro-
duction of Christianity into Poland, during the reign of
Mieczyslas I, that the Polish literature assumed a per-
ceptible shape. With the advance of civilization the
idols created in bygone days, before which the people
bowed, were one by one demolished, and the prejudices
17
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? 18 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
of the past so thoroughly subverted that in a short
time scarcely a vestige of them was left. We have,
indeed, old reminiscences of songs, fables, and tradi-
tions, but we find them all pervaded in exaggeration
and superstition.
In this interesting period we had poems, secular
songs, and other kinds of rhythmical compositions, be-
cause circumstances surrounding our people -- such as
wars, victories, and defeats ; weddings, funerals, and
national ceremonies -- naturally called into existence the
feeling of poetical inspiration ; hence bards appeared
who were the creators of these compositions. We had
also religious poetry, because from time immemorial
our people sung in churches in the Polish language;
but the relics of the original sacred poetry are very
scarce, since in the progression and refinement of the
Polish language these compositions were, so to speak,
made over, and hence many of them lost the stamp of'
their originality.
In the fifteenth century Polish Poetry made but little
progress ; indeed, we may say it stood as it was in the
age of Piast -- in its infancy. Scholastic philosophy and
the Latin tongue stifled, as it were, the native vein of
the Polish songs, -- scarcely the traces of a few were pre-
served. Toward the end of the fifteenth century, when
our people became more numerous and stronger, our
poets also began to assume more distinct and promi-
nent places. We no longer rest on conjectures and in-
ferences, but upon monumental evidences. Sacred
poetry was founded upon several renditions of the
Psalms, as also upon sacred songs translated from the
Bohemian, and the secular rested upon a wider range
and continual improvement on the Piast period. Hence
the rhythmical compositions of that period not being
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 19
characterized by any especial shading of poetry, we will
only classify the remaining traces and monuments.
'l. Relics of sacred poetry. 2. Of secular rhyth-
mical creations. In fact we could mention some dra-
matic souvenirs of those ages, but as they are of no
great significance, we leave that part to the pen of a
special inquirer.
RELICS OF SACRED POETRY.
After the introduction of Christianity, the Polish
Poetry, being under the influence of the civilization of
"Western Europe, began to flourish very early in sacred
or church songs ; although these songs were chiefly
translations from the Bohemian tongue, or, we should
rather remark, they were sort of made over.
Of the earliest poetic compositions nothing has yet
been found. Whether they had been wholly lost, or
were defaced by continual use in handling and tran-
scribing, is uncertain ; but as no religion has ever done
without songs and chants, we may naturally presume
that such had existed. Songs and chants of that kind
form the nucleus of every nation's poetry and music, and
it was in such rhythmical composition that the Polish
language . began to put forth its shoots, to refine and
improve. Pious simplicity especially characterizes these
compositions; intrinsically they have no poetical worth,
being as it were only prose un skillfully versified.
From the most important of these compositions
which came down to our times, and which deserve
notice, is :
1. "Boga Rodzica" (the Mother of God), origi-
nally composed by St. Adelbert. This celebrated chant
was composed in the Bohemian language, and was sung
by the Poles before the commencement of every battle,
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? 20 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
and is to this day sung during the divine services in the
Cathedral of Gniezno. The author of this celebrated
chant was born in 950 in Bohemia, and was the Bishop
of Prague. Being persecuted by the Bohemians, he
removed at first to Hungary, and then to Poland.
That was during the reign of Mieczyslas I, where he
was instrumental in spreading the newly introduced
doctrines of Christianity. In the year 995, with the
advice of Boleslas the Great, King of Poland, he went
to Prussia to instruct the pagans of that country in
Christianity, and suffered the death of a martyr at
Fishhausen. Bole. -las the Great bought his body from
the Prussians and had it buried with great ceremony at
Gniezno. Otto III, the Emperor of Germany, visited
his grave.
2. Fiftieth Psalm from thirteenth century.
3. Sorrows of the Mother of God under the Cross
of the Redeemer.
4. Psalter of Margaret, the Princess of the Mora-
vians, from fourteenth century ; but it is not certain
whether the production belongs to Margaret, the wife
of Louis, King of Hungary, or to Maria, the King's
eldest daughter. From certain passages there are
traces giving us to understand that it was the first trial --
the first translation of the psalter.
5. The Psalter of Queen Hedwige, from fifteenth
century -- the two first psalms.
6. Be Praised the Queen (Salve Regina), from the
year 1406.
Of the names of the authors of religious songs of
those days the following are known to us :
John Witowski, the companion of Ladislaus ? okietek,
who composed a song on the sufferings of our Lord,
which was sung in Poland during Lent.
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 21
John Opalin? ski, the bishop of Posen, a great lover
of music and good cheer. He wrote a song about the
Ascension ; the Immaculate Virgin Mary ; a song
about St. Adelbert ; live songs about St. Peter, and
six about St. Paul. These songs were sung by the
religious brotherhood of Posen.
John Preworszczyk, from fifteenth century, who
collected a small volume of ''Anthems " (1435). This
collection contains originals and translations from the
Latin, and the title is also Latin.
Andrew from SIupia, a Benedictine monk, wrote
songs of the Queen of Heaven ; also hymns to Jesus
Christ and others. These compositions are superior to
any previously written.
At that period the Poles had not come to full civili-
zation, and yielded to the influences of Western
Europe. Their poetry began at once to assume a
higher grade, and became more assimilated with music,
full of sweet harmony. Between 965-1040, however,
they still sang the old songs. The boors guarding the
bordering Castles during the reign of Boleslas the
Romantic, about King Popiel, were commonly sung by
young girls, and were not given up until the death of
Boleslas the Great. There were also many dumas ,
about the Tartars, who, in the thirteenth century, about
every twenty years made incursions into Poland ; but
after a while these songs fell into disuse:
There were also many ritual songs. The fragments
of these compositions attest their antiquity. Many of
these were made over into Christian songs, leaving,
however, the traces of some primitive words originally
used, which plainly identify them as the relics of old
times.
The wedding songs were preserved the best of any
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? 22 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
during almost eight centuries. These songs seem to
possess an idyllic tendency, and have come down even
to the present time in their primitiveness. From these
remnants the following deserve mention :
1. Congratulatory song to King Casimir I, begin-
ning with the words " Welcome, welcome, our dear
host. "
2. Plaintive songs of Boleslas the Great, which
Martin Gallus translated into Latin.
3. Song in honor of Boleslas, surnamed " The
Crooked-Mouthed. "
4. Song describing the assassination of Ludgarda
by her husband Przemyslas.
5. Song about Albert, the Justice of the City of
Cracow.
6. Song about Yitold.
7. Song concerning the calamity of Bukowina.
The most distinguished authors of those times are :
Andrew GaIka, the Professor in the Academy of
Cracow, and Canon of St. Thomas' Church, lived in
fifteenth century. Lie composed a song about Wick-
liffe, who encouraged Huss's religious views among the
Poles.
Adam S? winka, the Cathedral Canon of Cracow, and
Secretary of Jagello, lived in fifteenth century. He
wrote beautiful elegiac verses in the Latin tongue ;
epitaph on the death of Queen Hedwige ; composition
on the death of Zawisza*, surnamed "The Black. "
Besides these he wrote a heroic poem -- " De rebus
gestis ac dictus memorabilibus Casimiri Secundi Polo-
niae Regis inclitissimi. " These songs were translated
into Polish by Louis Kondratowicz.
Conrad Celtes wrote "Carmen ad Yistulam," de-
* A celebrated Polish hero.
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? POETE? Y OF POLAND. 23
scribing the channel of the river Vistula ; "Salinaria
ad Janum Terinum," describing the salt mines of
Wieliczka. His influence fired the Polish youth to the
Koman Classic literature.
Celtes was born in Germany in 1459, and was
crowned with a wreath by the Emperor of Germany
for his Latin poetry. While visiting for scientific pur-
poses Rome, Venice, lllyria, and Panonia, he came to
Cracow to hear Albert, from Brudziewa, lecture on
Astronomy. He remained in Cracow two years, divid-
ing his time in the study of astronomy, reading the
classics, and writing poetry in Latin, breathing his
love to Hasilina, a Cracovian maiden, -- as also enjoy-
ing the literary society of the young academicians. He
died in 1508.
SECOND EPOCH.
Called ? i The Sigismuxd Epoch. '' 1 Golden Advent of Polish
Poetey-- 1500-1620.
In the Second Epoch we see another, a wider, and
a more beautiful field opening before us. What was
only in the bud is in this epoch in full bloom. For-
merly it was only the light of the moon struggling to
penetrate through the darkness of ages. Now the
golden rays of the sun throw a new halo and form
enchantingly mingled colors of the rainbow. In those
days the historian was anxiously looking for the small-
est possible traces, but now in the abundance of pro-
ductions his task is only to select what is the best.
Weary of traveling amidst the woodless and track-
less prairies, we begin with pleasure, and hope to see
the accounts of true literature springing up. from the
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? 24 POETS AND POETEY OF POLAND.
inner life of a developing people and multiplying in
the production of poets, orators, and historians. It
was still more singular that the advance was made in
two different languages -- the Polish and the Latin --
equally well cultivated. It seemed as if two litera-
tures began to bloom all at once in one and the same
people. Thus we begin the sixteenth century.
The characteristic signs of this age were great dis-
coveries and inventions. At no previous time was
there so much anxiety and lively desire to study and
ascertain the inherent qualities of Nature ; never be-
fore the spirit of inquiry and searching after was wider
than in this epoch of Columbus, Gama, Raphael,
Copernicus, Galileo, and Guttenberg ; the world be-
came broader and more expansive by bold conception
of one man ; received a new world from the hands of
another, and if in accordance with the system of the
Creator himself, it was built over anew as if by the en-
chanter's hand ; the times of chivalry disappeared ;
Art thrusts the barbaric weapon out of the hands of
the stronger ; knowledge subverts the idols of scholas-
tics ; and, finally, that the ideal should not be lost,
Ariosto, Camoens, Cervantes, and their compeers, ap-
pear upon the stage. Perhaps at no period so many
eminent men made their appearance at the helm:
Leo X, Charles Y, Francis I, Sigismund the Old,
Henry YIII, Soliman, Shah Ismael, and Shah Akbar.
Amidst the turbulence of those days, there was one
country beyond the confines of Western Europe occu-
pying the common sphere of knowledge shed by the
light of Christianity, which quietly progressed in the
general improvement, in the science of government,
literature, and general enlightenment.
In their active life the Poles nursed their own ideas,
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? POETKY OF POLAND. 25
in shaping and by degrees unfolding their natural char-
acter, and thus the Polish nation, by uninterrupted pro-
gression, was nearing to her maturity.
At this epoch Polish Poetry and Polish Music kept
even pace with other branches of natural advancement.
Poets of great distinction appeared, their compositions
shedding a great luster over the national literature --
Nicholas Key, John Kochanowski, Klonowicz, Miaskow-
ski, and others. Besides these there were Polish poets
who wrote in the Latin tongue, as for instance :
Daxtyszek, who is the author of " De virtutis et
honore differentia Somnium"; "Carmen Extempora-
rum de victoria insigni Sigismundi Regis ''; " De nos-
trorum temporurn Calamitatibus " ; "Jonas propheta
de interitu civitatis Gedanensis "; " Epigramata varia,"
etc. etc.
Paul Krosnianin also sung for posterity many
memorable things: "Jureditum Sigismundi I, Regis
Poloniae "; " De nuptiis Sigismundi Regis Poloniae et
Bonae Ducis Mediolani hliae," etc. etc.
Clemens Jaxicki. All of his poetry belongs to
lyric compositions. Their smoothness reminds the
scholar of Ovid, and on account of the outpouring of a
great feeling he can be justly compared to Catullus and
Tibullus. This epoch comes down to the year 1620.
THIRD EPOCH.
Called the Jesuit Period -- 1620-1750.
A distracted state of the country in consequence of
internal quarrels and wars caused also the decadence in
Polish literature. It is with much regret and reluctance
that this fact is stated. The deviation from the right
way of a single age caused the retrogression of Poland ;
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? 26 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND. ?
and while all countries surrounding us were advancing
in light, we were thrown into darkness and became, as
it were, the sport of a relentless fate. Sad, indeed,
is the lesson received from our forefathers, that retro-
gression from light is far more detrimental to the hap-
piness of a nation than the simplicity of ignorance.
After the death of Jagellons and Stephen Batory,
many misfortunes came over our people. Incursions
of enemies and internal dissensions caused many suf-
ferings to the Republic. As if to compensate for this
retrogression, immortal heroes appeared on the stage
of action. Z? o? ? kiewski, Czarnecki, Chodkiewicz, and
John Sobieski shed upon their country a true, heroic
luster, as they not only fought for their own country,
but for entire Christendom.
We should not very much transgress if we said that
in this period we show but few distinguished names in
poetry. Zimorowicz, Gawin? ski, Mortszyn, Kochowski,
Elizabeth Druzbacka, and Prince Jab? onowski belong to
this period, and we have every reason to be proud of
them. This period extends from Sigismund III to
Stanislaus Augustus.
FOURTH EPOCH.
Pseudo-Classic, or Konarski's Epoch, or Revival of Gen-
eral Knowledge and Literature in Poland.
The unpropitious times of Sigismunds under the
blasts of which the flowers of Polish Poesy began to
wither had passed away. The circumstances, how-
ever, and elements of this new period were very favor-
able toward reviving, regenerating, and improving the
almost neglected branches of literature. The languish-
ing powers of the Polish Muse were all of a sudden
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 27
strengthened and exalted as if by the enchanter's
wand. Poets like Karpin? ski, Trembecki, Woronicz,
Kniaznin, Krasicki, Wengierski, Szymonowicz, Dmuch-
owski, and others appeared in the galaxy. Authors of
great distinction in other branches of literature began
to multiply with astonishing rapidity. The King him-
self, being a learned man, encouraged men of genius
with great magnanimity.
The beginning of this desirable revival was chiefly
owing to Konarski and his companions, who, being-
educated in France under the protection of Stanislaus
Leszczyn? ski, on their return to their native land brought
fresh ideas with them regarding social science and liter-
ature, and hence it was that a French classic literature
was inducted into Poland similar to the French liter-
ature existing during the reign of Louis XI Y. Konar-
ski compelled the Jesuits to adopt these reforms, and
having obtained the powerful assistance of Joseph and
Andrew Za? uski, -- bishops of great learning and
influence -- was able to thus effect the salvation of
their countrymen who through former wars and inter-
nal dissension had so unfortunately retrograded from
their former greatness.
During the last years of the reign of Augustus III
the Polish literature was enriched by works of great
worth on history, bibliography, theology, etc. Minas-
owicz wrote good poetry and translated into the Polish
language ancient classics. Nagurczewski translated
the works of Homer, Yirgil, and Cicero. Jab? onowski
rendered into Polish the fables of ^Esop and Telem-
achus.
As the nineteenth century was rapidly approaching,
learned men and poets found protection and assistance
in the houses of great magnates; and Pu? awy, the resi-
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? 28 POETS AND POETKY OF POLAND.
dence of princes Czartoryiski, became the dwelling-
place of the Polish muse.
In the year 1800 there sprung up at Warsaw u The
Society of the Friends of Learning. " Its members
were men of great learning, and vigorous writers; many
of the poets enlisted under that auspicious banner.
The object of that society was to preserve from oblivion,
and enrich, the wealth of the Polish literature. This
National Society gave a great impetus to strenuous
endeavors by men of genius to write. Such men as
Woronicz, Niemcewicz, Albertrandy, Lelewel, Bandt-
kie, Sniadecki, Czacki, Linde, Ossolin? ski, and others
appeared upon the stage of literary fame. Each of
these celebrated men not only contributed much to the
general literature of their country, but exerted great
influence over the tenor and literary taste of those
days. Every one of them had a direct bearing on the
progression of literature, and for that reason there was
an uncommon advance in poetry, history, and natural
sciences.
Although the compositions of at least a part of this
period were somewhat affected by French idioms and
inflation, yet the strength of the national current pre-
vailed and preserved the native purity of language and
ideas unharmed.
FIFTH EPOCH.
Pseudo-Romantic ok Mickiewicz's Epoch -- Extending from
the Year 1822 to the Present Day.
Amidst the many violent political shocks in Europe,
which only ended with the downfall of Napoleon the
Great and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, there also
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 29
came changes in the intellectual world. Europe got
rid of mediaeval excrescences and conceits !
Thinking men must admit that there are moments
in the lives of nations as well as of individuals when
the mind, rocked by the storms of adversity, longs for
quietness and rest. When we see that the happiness
which we had been seeking, the great aims for which
we have been striving with so much faith and devoted-
ness, have come to nothing, that all our troubles and
endeavors have been of no avail, then it is that we turn
our languishing eyes into the past when we thought we
were happy, though in reality we were only compara-
tively so, not knowing that it might and should be better.
We look as if into the mirror, into the luster of sweet
and pleasing remembrances of departed years, since
now they seem to be more beautiful and more poetic,
just because they will never return. Such time is pro-
pitious to the unfolding and developing into bloom of
historical poetry. Such an epoch in modern Europe
was the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The political and intellectual storms of the last hun-
dred years left after them banished hopes, a void, and a
faintness. From the smoldering ashes and moss-over-
grown ruins the mental powers, rent by doubts and a
wounded heart which the present could not satisfy, the
yearning voice spoke forth for the feeling and faith, for
the greatness and poetry of olden times. This was in
consequence of a reaction of the past.
As it always happens that when there is a new
change to take place in the kingdom of imagination
immediately there is born a new generation willing and
ready to second and support it, so it was at this
period. Classicism began to show every day more and
more plainly that its time was about over. In the
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? 30 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
minds of the highest cultivation it began to lose, gradu-
ally, its prestige, and although no one could see at the
time what should take its place, everyone felt that its
decadence was at hand, when lo ! a single bard ap-
peared on a newly erected stage, and pronounced the
word Homa/nticism. Literary men gave him a willing
ear. The apostles of a new poetic faith began to in-
crease and multiply and with much enthusiasm spread
the new doctrine of poetic inspiration, and thus the
new Phoenix was born. The originator of the Roman-
tic School was Adam Mickiewicz. It will ever be a
memorable time in the history not only of the Polish
but of European poetic literature. Witwicki, Gos-
czyn? ski, Zaleski, Gos? awski, and others, propelled by
the current of their genius, joined the new camp, and
having sanctioned the new doctrine, upheld it with the
force of their poetic powers. They struck the strings
which up to this period were not only untouched but
unknown. The self-created spirit broke the shackles
of former days -- shackles that so strictly bound the free-
dom and spirit of poetic inspiration to certain laid down
poetic rules in composition. Then it was that the poetic
flow began to gush out from the eternal spring of love
and phantasy. The Polish nationality received this
new outgrowth with great approbation and delight,
which is still in popular favor, and we think will con-
tinue so for generations to come.
The creations of our poets of this period are almost
in every instance breathing with a peculiarly happy,
heartfelt, and lively serenity of the spirit. Although
sadness and tearfulness preponderate in their strains,
yet it can be plainly seen that they are pervaded with
a strong belief in the guardianship of Providence over
the affairs of this world, which in its nature is hopeful
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 31
and noble, for it assures sooner or later the additional
triumph over the power of falsehood and evil, contend-
ing against them and temporarily restraining their in-
fluence over the world.
Unlike the literatures of other nationalities, breath-
ing doubts, grief, or repulsive flattery, or replete with
metaphysical mysticism, which loses itself in the un-
fathomable, our ideals had something in them of re-
ality, and in almost all poetic creations of. our bards
there is an undercurrent of religiously patriotic love of
country, deeper, and yet more purely understood, than
in any other literature.
As to the introduction of this pseudo-romantic style
of writing, its votaries could not precisely define what
they wished and where they were tending, because no
one precisely understood upon what system this Ro-
manticism was founded.
It must be remembered that heretofore the French
system stood preeminent in the Polish literature, but
now the time had come to cut loose from it, and Polish
litterateurs began to consider the poetic elements
governing the middle ages and also giving much
weight to the German style. Happily for the Poles
that the deliberations of these men served as a protec-
tion in the incubation of the style purely national.
After the ebullition of the first youthful enthusiasm
was over, our poets began to examine their strength,
but finding it as yet very undefined they turned their
attention to different but inexhaustible sources -- the
treasures of popular poetry, which led to the love of
the supernatural and miraculous, and to the fresh tra-
ditions of the great past, which they wished to preserve
and to perpetuate by their songs.
But what was the aim of these poets ? It was to
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? 32 POETS AND POETRY OF POLAND.
bring nearer to the sight the local phenomena of exist-
ence, to increase the light, to make the home history
more interesting, and to preserve in the mirror of
poetic art the hereditary thoughts and feelings, as also
the remembrances upon which is founded, and from
which emanates, the individuality of national existence.
All the above mentioned poets, albeit different in the
tendencies of their genius, meet at the same point, that
is, in the texture and concatenation of thought, the
national feeling.
During the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, and
subsequently the Kingdom of Poland, and especially
until the year 1825, the whole of our literature flowed
as it were in one and the same channel ; but since the
advent of Brodzin? ski different tendencies began to
spread over the country. Civilization had extended its
blessings all over the Polish nation, and at the same
time had awakened great poetic talent.
Small poetical circles were formed in the Kingdom
of Poland, in Lithuania and that part of Poland called
Little Russia, comprising Podolia, Yolhynia and
Ukraine, forming as it were so many different and
distinct pleiads, but shining in the same heavens and
constituting our whole literature. Padura, Zaleski,
Goszczyn? ski, Olizarowski, Groza, and others, but they
were all outstripped by Brodzin? ski' } s "Wies? aw" and
Malczewskie "Marya. " The first was well under-
stood, but the other seemed incomprehensible at first,
but now he is reckoned among the first poets of Poland.
But the grand center of poetic power was Adam
Mickiewicz, the creator of a new and splendid epoch
in Polish Poetry, the man who accomplished a twofold
task, that of gathering in his own personality the spirit
of the whole nation and raising up the Polish Poetry
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? POETRY OF POLAND. 33
to the rank of the European muse. This he accom-
plished most successfully.
In Germany the Goethe epoch was passing way.
The era of English poetry was beginning to change by
the appearance of Lord Byron and Walter Scott.
In France there were Lamartine and Victor Hugo.
Between these poets and Mickiewicz there was that
kindred relationship which can only exist among men
of great genius at the same time and without any re-
gard to nationality.
The imitators of Mickiewicz did not exactly equal
his genius. Among the most prominent of these could
be counted Odyniec, Alexander, Chodz? ko, Witwicki,
Massalski and Julian Korsak.
With the year 1831 a new inspiration seemed to
have taken hold of the whole Polish nation, and the
Polish literature also took a new turn, that of a moral
and a warm patriotic tendency.
