Lip
first and most essential practice must be accompa- sine, 1711-16; comp.
first and most essential practice must be accompa- sine, 1711-16; comp.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - b
8.
) Our resemblance to God (i.
desired that logical exercises, the study of books 12. 27), or our relationship to the Deity (i. 9. 1,
and of eloquence, should not lead persons away | 11), and the coincidence of our own will with the
from that of which they were merely the means, will of God (ii. 17. 22, comp. 19. 26, iii. 21. 95,
and that they should not minister to pride, haugh- iv. 1, 89. 103, 4. 39), consist in our acting in ac-
tiness, and avarice. (i. 8. 6, &c. , 29. 55, ii. 4. 11, cordance with reason and in freedom. Through
9. 17, 16. 34, 17. 34, 21. 20, iii. 2. 23, 17. 28, reason our souls are as closely connected and mixed
24. 78. ) He never devotes any time to disquisi- up with the Deity, as though they were parts of
tions which do not, either directly or indirectly, him (i. 14. 6, ii. 8. 11, 13, 17. 33); for mind,
contribute towards awakening, animating, and knowledge, and reason, constitute the essence of
purifying man's moral conduct. (i. 17. 15, 29. 58, God, and are identical with the essence of good. (11. 8.
ii. 19. 10; comp. iv. 8. 24, 6. 24. )
1, &c. ) Let us therefore invoke God's assistance in
The true Cynic-and he is the same as the our strife after the good (ii. 18. 29, comp. i. 6. 21),
Stoic, the philosopher,-is in the opinion of Epic- let us emulate him (ii
. 14. 13), let us purify that
tetus a messenger of Zeus, sent to men to deliver which is our guide within us (iii. 22. 19), and let
them from their erroneous notions about good and us be pure with the pure within us, and with the
evil, and about happiness and unhappiness (iii. 22. Deity! (ii. 18. 19. )
23), and to lead them back into themselves. (ib. The prophet within us, who announces to us the
39. ) For this purpose he requires natural grace- nature of good and evil (ii. 7. 2), is the daemon,
fulness and acuteness of intellect (ib. 90), for his the divine part of every one, his never-resting and
words are to produce a lively impression.
incorruptible guardian. (i. 14. 12. ) He manifests
The beginning of philosophy, according to him, himself in our opinions, which have something
is the perception of one's own weakness and of common with one another and are agreeing with
one's inability to do that which is needful. (ii. 11. one another (i. 22. 1); for they are the things which
1; comp. iii. 23. 34, ii. 17. 1. ). Along with this are self-evident, and which we feel obliged to carry
perception we become aware of the contest which into action, though we may combat them. (ii. 20.
is going on among men, and we grow anxious to 1. ) That which is good we must recognize as
ascertain the cause of it, and consequently to dis- such a thing: wherever it appears, it draws us to
cover a standard by which we may give our deci- wards itself, and it is impossible to reject the con-
sion (ii. 11. 13, &c. ): to meditate upon this and ception of good. (iii. 3. 4, comp. i. 4. 1. ) The opi-
to dwell upon it, is called philosophizing. (ib. 24; nions just described are the helps which nature has
comp. iii. 10. 6. ) The things which are to be given to every one for discovering that which is
measured are conceptions, which form the material; irue. (iv. 1. 51. ) Wherever they are not recog-
the work which is to be constructed out of them, nized, as is the case with the followers of the New
is their just and natural application, and a con- Academy, our mind and modesty become petrified.
trol over them. (iii. 22. 20, 23. 42. ) This just | (i. 5. 3. ) To investigate this criticism of what is
choice of conceptions and our consent to or decision in accordance with nature, and to master it
in their favour (Apoalpeois, ouykatádegis), consti- in its application to individual things, is the
tute the nature of good. (ii. 1. 4, 19. 32. ). Only object of all our scientific endearours (i. 11. 15),
that which is subject to our choice or decision is and ths mastery is obtained only by the cultira- .
good or evil; all the rest is neither good nor evil; tion of our mind and by education. (Taidela ; i. 2.
it concerns us not, it is beyond our reach (i. 13. 9, 6, 22. 9, ii. 17. 7. ) The practice in theory is the
25. 1, ii. 5. 4); it is something external, merely a easier part; the application in life is the more dif-
subject for our choice (i. 29. 1, ii. 16. 1, 19. 3:2, ficult one, and is the object of all theory. (i. 26. 3,
iv. 10. 26); in itself it is indifferent, but its appli- | 29. 35. ) We find that as far as practical appli-
cation is not indifferent (ii. 5. 1, 6. 1), and its ap- cation is concerned, many men are Épicureans and
plication is either consistent with or contrary to effeminate Peripatetics, though they profess the
nature. (ii. 5. 24. ) The choice, and consequently doctrines of the Stoics and Cynics. (ii. 19. 20, 12
a
## p. 33 (#49) ##############################################
EPICTETUS.
33
EPICURUS.
caeus.
1, 18. 26, iii. 26. 13, iv. 1. 138, 4. 14. 43, 6. 15. ) | philosopher was expected to shew in his relation
In order to obtain a mastery in the application of to the vicissitudes of the world and of man. The
moral principles to life, a continued practice is re- maxim suffer and abstain (from evil) (Fragm. 179;
quired; but this practice is first and chiefly to be comp. Dissert. iv. 8. 25; Gell. xvii. 19), which
directed towards a control of our conceptions, and he followed throughout his life, was based with
thereby also of our passions and desires, which are him on the firm belief in a wise and benevolent
themselves only modes of conception (ii. 18. 1, &c. , government of Providence; and in this respect he
29, iv. 10. 26), and as such they press and force approaches the Christian doctrine more than any
us; one person being more under the influence of of the carlier Stoios, though there is not a trace in
this kind, and another more under the influence of the Epictetea to shew that he was acquainted with
another kind; for which reason every one, according Christianity, and still less, that he had adopted
to his personal peculiarity, must oppose to them a Christianity, either in part or entirely. (Chr. Crelius,
continued practice. (i. 25. 26, ii. 16. 22. ) This De úmepoópois el dobdois Epicteti Dissertat.
Lip
first and most essential practice must be accompa- sine, 1711-16; comp. Brucker in Temp. Helvet.
nied by a second, which is directed towards that iii. 2. p. 200. )
[CH. A. B. ]
which is appropriate (duty), and a third, the object EPİCTEʻTUS ('EXIKTnTos), a physician men-
of which is surety, truth, and certainty ; but the tioned by Symmachus (Epist. x. 47), who attained
latter must not pretend to supplant the former. to the title and dignity of Archiater in the time of
(iii
. 2. 6, 12. 12, &c. ) The unerring desire after Theodosius the Great, A. D. 379-395. (W. A. G. )
what is good, the absolute avoidance of what is EPICU'RIUS ('Erikoúpos), the helper, a sur-
bad, the desire ever directed towards the appro- name of Apollo, under which he was worshipped
priate, carefully-weighed resolutions, and a full at Bassae in Arcadia. Every year a wild boar
consent to them, are the nerves of the philosopher. was sacrificed to him in his temple on mount Ly-
(ü. 8. 29. ) Throngh them he acquires freedom
He had received this surname because he
and entire independence of everything which is had at one time delivered the country from a pes-
not subject to his choice (iv. 4. 39, iii. 22. 13), tilence. (Paus. viii. 38. § 6, 41. $ 5. ) (L. S. ]
and in confiding submission he leaves the manage- EPICU'RUS ('Erikoupos), a celebrated Greek
ment of it to Providence, whose universal rule philosopher and the founder of a philosophical
cannot escape the eye of an unbiassed and grateful school called after him the Epicurean. He was a
observer of the occurrences in the world. (i. 6. 9, son of Neocles and Charestrata, and belonged to
4, 12, 13, 14, 16, 30, i. 14. 26, üi. 17. ) In this the Attic demos of Gargettus, whence he is some-
submissive confidence, and the consciousness of its times simply called the Gargertian. (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
necessity, in order to be able to preserve unchanged | 16. ) He was born, however, in the island of Samos,
our outward peace of mind in all the occurrences in B. C. 342, for his father was one of the Athenian
of life, in sorrow and in want, we see the spirit of cleruchi, who went to Samos and received lands
the modern, and we may say, ennobled Porch ; the there. Epicurus spent the first eighteen years of
same spirit is expressed the energy and purity his life at Samos, and then repaired to Athens, in
of its sentiments, and in the giving up of principles B. C. 323, where Xenocrates was then at the head
whose harshness and untenableness arose from the of the academy, by whom Epicurus is said to have
inflexible and abstract consistency of the earlier been instructed, though Epicurus himself denied
Porch.
it. (Diog. Laërt. x. 13; Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 26. )
Epictetus is well aware, that man, as such, is a He did not, however, stay at Athens long, for after
member of the great cosmic community of gods and the outbreak of the Lamian war he went to Cola
men, and also that he is a member of the commu- phon, where his father was then residing, and en-
nities of state and family, and that he stands to gaged in teaching. Epicurus followed the example
them in the same relation as a limb to the whole of his father: he collected pupils and is said to
organic body, and that therefore he can attain his have instructed them in grammar, until gradually
full development only with them. (ii. 5. 26, 10. 3, his attention was drawn towards philosophy.
&c. , 2. 19, 13. ) He recognizes the necessity of Epicurus himself asserted that he bad entered upon
love and confidence (ii. 22. 4, 1), and he demands his philosophical studies at the early age of four-
of the Cynic, that is, the true philosopher, to re- teen, while according to others it was not till five
nounce marriage and family life, only that he may or six years later. Some said that he was led to
devote himself with all his powers to the service of the study of philosophy by his contempt of the
the deity, and to the duties of an unlimited phi- rhetoricians and grammarians who were unable to
lanthropy. (iii. 22. 67. &c. ) It is true that with explain to bim the passage in Hesiod about Chaos ;
Epictetus, too, the place of a political system and a and others said that the first impulse was given to
considerable portion of ethics, are supplied by the him by the works of Democritus, which fell into his
ideal of a philosopher,-- but how could a living hands by accident. It is at any rate undeniable
consciousness of the nature of a state have been that the atomistic doctrines of Democritus exer-
formed in his time and in his circumstances ? In cised a very great influence upon Epicurus, though
his endeavours to establish in himself and others a he asserted that he was perfectly independent of
moral standard, unaffected by the corruptions of all the philosophical schools of the time, and en-
his age, he does not perceive its close and necessary deavoured to solve the great problems of life by
connexion with the active and unchecked scientific independent thought and investigation, From
and artistic efforts. But he acknowledges their Colophon Epicurus went to Mytilene and Lamp-
moral importance more than his predecessors, and sacus, in which places he was engaged for five years
he is impressed with the conviction, that the indi- in teaching philosophy. In B. c. 306, when he
vidual must live for the whole, although he is not had attained the age of 35, he again went to
able to determine the how in a manner productive Athens. He there purchased for eighty minae a
of great results. Above all things, however, he garden-the famous Knnou ’Erikoúpou which ap-
gave up the proud self-sufficiency which the Stoic ! parently was situated in the heart of the city, and in
VOL. IJ.
D
## p. 34 (#50) ##############################################
34
EPICURUS.
EPICURUS.
which he established his philosophical school. Sur-states that he wrote about 300 volumes (KÚM. v8 por).
rounded by numerous friends and pupils and by his His works, however, are said to have been full of re-
three brothers, Neocles, Charidemus, and Aristobu- petitions and quotations of authorities. A list of the
lus, who likewise devoted themselves to the study best of his works is given by Diogenes (1. 27, &c. ),
of philosophy, Epicurus spent the remainder of his and among them we may mention the Nepl ovoras
life in his garden at Athens. His mode of living in 37 books, nepi drów kał Kevoù, 'EniTout Tv
was simple, temperate, and cheerful, and the asper- προς φυσικούς, Προς τους Μεγαρικούς διαπορίαι,
sions of comic poets and of later philosophers who | Κύριαι δόξαι, Περί τέλους, Περί κριτηρίου ή κανών,
were opposed to his philosophy and describe him as | Χαιρέδημος η περί θεών, Περί βίων in three books,
a person devoted to sensual pleasures, do not seem | Περί της εν τη ατόμω γωνίας, Περί ειμαρμένης,
entitled to the least credit, although they have suc- Περί ειδώλων, Περί δικαιοσύνης και των άλλων
ceeded in rendering his name proverbial with pos- apetw, and 'Emiotoral. Of his epistles four are
terity for a sensualist or debauchee. The accounts preserved in Diogenes. (x. 22, 35, &c. , 84, &c. ,
of his connexion with Leontium, Marmarium, and 122, &c. ) The first is very brief and was ad-
other well known hetaerae of the time. perhaps be- dressed by Epicurus just before his death to Ido-
long to the same kind of slander and calumny in meneus. "The three others are of far greater im-
which his enemies indulged. The life in Diogenes portance : the first of them is addressed to one
Laërtius affords abundant proof that Epicurus was Herodotus, and contains an outline of the Canon and
a man of simple, pure, and temperate habits, a the Physica; the second, addressed to Pythocles, con-
kind-hearted friend, and even a patriotic citizen. tains his theory about meteors, and the third, which
He kept aloof from the political parties of the is addressed to Menoeceus, gives a concise view of
time, and took no part in public affairs. His his ethics, so that these three Epistles, the genuine-
maxim was adde Bicoas, which was partly the ness of which can scarcely be doubted, furnish us
result of his peculiar philosophy, and partly of the an outline of his whole philosophical system. An
political condition of Athens, which drove men to abridgement of them is preserved in Endocia,
seek in themselves happiness and consolation for p: 173, &c. They were edited separately by
the loss of political freedom. During the latter Nürnberger in his edition of the tenth book of
period of his life Epicurus was afflicted with severe Diogenes Laërtius, Nürnberg. , 1791, 8vo. The
sufferings, and for many years he was unable to letters, to Herodotus and Pythocles were edited
walk. In the end his sufferings were increased separately by J. G. Schneider under the title of
by the formation of a stone in his bladder, which Epicuri Physica et Meteorologica duabus Epis-
terminated fatally after a severe illness of a fort-tolis comprehensa, Leipzig, 1813, 8vo. These
night. He bore his sufferings with a truly philo- | letters, together with the above mentioned Kúpiau
sophical patience, cheerfulness, and courage, and 86£at, that is, forty-four propositions containing the
died at the age of 72, in Olymp. 127. 2, or B. c. 270. substance of the ethical philosophy of Epicurus,
His will, which is preserved in Diogenes Laërtius which are likewise preserved in Diogenes, must be
(x. 16, &c. ), shews the same mildness of character our principal guides in examining and judging of
and the same kind disposition and attachment to the Epicurean philosophy. All the other works of
his friends, which he had manifested throughout Epicurus have perished, with the exception of a
life. Among his many pupils Epicurus himself considerable number of fragments. Some parts of
gave the preference to Metrodorus of Lampsacus, the above-mentioned work, liepl oúrews, espe
whom he used to call the philosopher, and whom he cially of the second and eleventh books, which
would have appointed to succeed him (Diog. treat of the eldwe have been found among the
Laërt. x. 22, &c. ); but Metrodorus died seven rolls at Herculaneum, and are published in C.
years before his master, and in his will Epicurus Corsini's Volumin. Herculan. vol. ii. Naples, 1809,
appointed Hermarchus of Mytilene his successor from which they were reprinted separately by
in the management of his school at Athens. J. C. Orelli, Leipzig, 1818, 8vo. Some fragments
Apollodorus, the Epicurean, wrote a life of Epicu- of the tenth book of the same work have been
rus, of which Diogenes made great use in his ac- edited by J. Th. Kreissig in his Comment. de
count of Epicurus, but this is now lost, and our Sallust. Ilistor. Fragm. p. 237, &c. If we may
principal source of infornation respecting Epicurus judge of the style of Epicurus from these few
is the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, who how- remains, it must be owned that it is clear and
ever, as usual, only puts together what he finds in animated, though it is not distinguished for any
others ; but at the same time he furnishes us some other peculiar merits.
very important documents, such as his will, four With regard to the philosophical system of Epi-
letters and the kúplai dótas, of which we shall curus, there is scarcely a philosopher in all antiquity
speak below.
With the account of Diogenes who boasted so much as Epicurus of being inde
we have to compare the philosophical poem of Lu- pendent of all his predecessors, and those who
cretius, and the remarks and criticisms which are were believed to have been his teachers were
scattered in the works of later Greek and Roman treated by him with scom and bitter hostility.
writers, nearly all of whom, however, wrote in a He prided himself upon being an autodidaktos,
hostile spirit about Epicurus and his philosophy but even a superficial glance at his philosophy
and must therefore be used with great caution. shews that he was not a little indebted to the
Among them we must mention Cicero in his philo. Cyrenaics on the one hand and to Democritus
sophical treatises, especially the De Finibus, on the other. As far as the ethical part of his phi-
and the De Natura Deorum; Seneca in his losophy is concerned thus much may be admitted,
letter to Lucilius, and some treatises of Plutarch in that, like other systems of the time, it arose from
his so-called Moralia.
the peculiar circumstances in which the Greek
Epicurus appears to have been one of the most states were placed. Thinking men were led to
prolific of all the ancient Greek writers. Diogenes seek within them that which they could not find
Laërtius (X. 26), who calls him hol vypaputatos, / without. Political freedom had to a great extent
## p. 35 (#51) ##############################################
EPICURUS.
35
EPICYDES.
3.
volumes (κύλοδροι)
have been fall of the
orities. A list of the
Diogenes (z. 27, &c. )
ion the Περί φύσεως
κενού, Επιτομή των
εγαρικούς διαπερίας,
1 κριτηρίου ή κανών,
Biw in three books,
Ε, Περί ειμαρμένης,
της και των άλλων
nis epistles four are
35, &c. , 84, &r,
brief and was a
- his death to Ide
of far greater is-
addressed to be
ne of the Canap and
d to Pythocles, con
nd the third, which
s a concise view of
sistles, the genuine
Dubted, furnish as
nical systern. AD
rved in Endocis,
ed separately by
he tenth book of
1791, 870. The
cles were edited
ander the title of
ma duabus Epés
3, 8vo. These
mentioned Kúpiai
is containing the
oby of Epicurus,
Diogenes, must be
; and judging of
le other works of
: exception of a
Some parts of
! φύσεως, εpe
i books, which
und among the
published in C.
. Naples, 1809,
separately by
Some fragments
'ork have been
s Comment de
If we may
rom these fez
it is clear and
lished for any
disappeared, and philosophers endeavoured to estab- | laborious business of creating the world; and as
lish an internal freedom based upon ethical princi- the government of the world would interfere with
ples, and to maintain it in spite of outward oppres- their happiness, he conceived the gods as exercising
sion, no less than to secure it against man's own no influence whatever upon the world or man.
passions and evil propensities Perfect independ- The number of pupils of Epicurus whe, propa-
ence, self reliance, and contentment, therefore, gated his doctrines, was extremely great ; but his
were regarded as the highest good and as the philosophy received no further development at
qualities which alone could make men happy, and their hands, except perhaps that in subsequent
as human happiness was with Epicurus the ultimate times his lofty notion of pleasure and happiness
end of all philosophy, it was necessary for him to was reduced to that of material and sensual plea-
make ethics the most essential part, and as it were sure. His immediate disciples adopted and followed
the centre of his whole philosophy. He had little his doctrines with the most scrupulous conscien-
esteem for logic and dialectics, but as he could not tiousness : they were attached and devoted to their
altogether do without them, he prefixed to his master in a manner which has rarely been equalled
ethics a canon, or an introduction to ascertain the either in ancient or modern times: their esteem,
criterium which was to guide him in his search love, and veneration for him almost bordered upon
after truth and in distinguishing good from evil. worship; they are said to have committed his
His criteria themselves were derived from sensuous works to memory; they had his portrait engraved
perception combined with thought and reflection. upon rings and drinking vessels, and celebrated
We obtain our knowledge and form our concep- his birthday every year. Athens honoured him
tions of things, according to him, through eldwia, with bronze statues. But notwithstanding the
i e. images of things which are reflected from them, extraordinary devotion of his pupils and friends,
and pass through our senses into our minds. Such whose number, says Diogenes, exceeded that of
a theory is destructive of all absolute truth, and a the population of whole towns, there is no philoso-
mere momentary impression upon our senses or pher in antiquity who has been so violently at-
feelings is substituted for it. His ethical theory tacked, and whose ethical doctrines have been so
was based upon the dogma of the Cyrenaics, that much mistaken and misunderstood, as Epicurus.
pleasure constitutes the highest happiness, and The cause of this singular phaenomenon was partly
must consequently be the end of all human exer- a superficial knowledge of his philosophy, of which
tions. Epicurus, however, developed and ennobled Cicero, for example, is guilty to a very great extent,
this theory in a manner which constitutes the and partly also the conduct of men who called
peculiarity and real merit of his philosophy, and themselves Epicureans, and, taking advantage of
which gained for him so many friends and admirers the facility with which his ethical theory was made
both in antiquity and in modern times. Pleasure the handmaid of a sensual and debauched life, gave
with him was not a mere momentary and transitory themselves up to the enjoyment of sensual plea-
sensation, but he conceived it as something lasting sures. At Rome, and during the time of Roman
and imperishable, consisting in pure and noble ascendancy in the ancient world, the philosophy of
mental enjoyments, that is, in drapatla and drovía, Epicurus never took any firm root; and it is then
or the freedom from pain and from all influences and there that, owing to the paramount influence
which disturb the peace of our mind, and thereby of the Stoic philosophy, we meet with the bit-
our happiness, which is the result of it. The terest antagonists of Epicurus. The disputes
summum bonum, according to him, consisted in this for and against his philosophy, however, are not
peace of mind; and the great problem of his ethics, confined to antiquity; they were renewed at the
therefore, was to shew how it was to be attained, time of the revival of letters, and are continued to
and ethics was not only the principal branch of the present day.
desired that logical exercises, the study of books 12. 27), or our relationship to the Deity (i. 9. 1,
and of eloquence, should not lead persons away | 11), and the coincidence of our own will with the
from that of which they were merely the means, will of God (ii. 17. 22, comp. 19. 26, iii. 21. 95,
and that they should not minister to pride, haugh- iv. 1, 89. 103, 4. 39), consist in our acting in ac-
tiness, and avarice. (i. 8. 6, &c. , 29. 55, ii. 4. 11, cordance with reason and in freedom. Through
9. 17, 16. 34, 17. 34, 21. 20, iii. 2. 23, 17. 28, reason our souls are as closely connected and mixed
24. 78. ) He never devotes any time to disquisi- up with the Deity, as though they were parts of
tions which do not, either directly or indirectly, him (i. 14. 6, ii. 8. 11, 13, 17. 33); for mind,
contribute towards awakening, animating, and knowledge, and reason, constitute the essence of
purifying man's moral conduct. (i. 17. 15, 29. 58, God, and are identical with the essence of good. (11. 8.
ii. 19. 10; comp. iv. 8. 24, 6. 24. )
1, &c. ) Let us therefore invoke God's assistance in
The true Cynic-and he is the same as the our strife after the good (ii. 18. 29, comp. i. 6. 21),
Stoic, the philosopher,-is in the opinion of Epic- let us emulate him (ii
. 14. 13), let us purify that
tetus a messenger of Zeus, sent to men to deliver which is our guide within us (iii. 22. 19), and let
them from their erroneous notions about good and us be pure with the pure within us, and with the
evil, and about happiness and unhappiness (iii. 22. Deity! (ii. 18. 19. )
23), and to lead them back into themselves. (ib. The prophet within us, who announces to us the
39. ) For this purpose he requires natural grace- nature of good and evil (ii. 7. 2), is the daemon,
fulness and acuteness of intellect (ib. 90), for his the divine part of every one, his never-resting and
words are to produce a lively impression.
incorruptible guardian. (i. 14. 12. ) He manifests
The beginning of philosophy, according to him, himself in our opinions, which have something
is the perception of one's own weakness and of common with one another and are agreeing with
one's inability to do that which is needful. (ii. 11. one another (i. 22. 1); for they are the things which
1; comp. iii. 23. 34, ii. 17. 1. ). Along with this are self-evident, and which we feel obliged to carry
perception we become aware of the contest which into action, though we may combat them. (ii. 20.
is going on among men, and we grow anxious to 1. ) That which is good we must recognize as
ascertain the cause of it, and consequently to dis- such a thing: wherever it appears, it draws us to
cover a standard by which we may give our deci- wards itself, and it is impossible to reject the con-
sion (ii. 11. 13, &c. ): to meditate upon this and ception of good. (iii. 3. 4, comp. i. 4. 1. ) The opi-
to dwell upon it, is called philosophizing. (ib. 24; nions just described are the helps which nature has
comp. iii. 10. 6. ) The things which are to be given to every one for discovering that which is
measured are conceptions, which form the material; irue. (iv. 1. 51. ) Wherever they are not recog-
the work which is to be constructed out of them, nized, as is the case with the followers of the New
is their just and natural application, and a con- Academy, our mind and modesty become petrified.
trol over them. (iii. 22. 20, 23. 42. ) This just | (i. 5. 3. ) To investigate this criticism of what is
choice of conceptions and our consent to or decision in accordance with nature, and to master it
in their favour (Apoalpeois, ouykatádegis), consti- in its application to individual things, is the
tute the nature of good. (ii. 1. 4, 19. 32. ). Only object of all our scientific endearours (i. 11. 15),
that which is subject to our choice or decision is and ths mastery is obtained only by the cultira- .
good or evil; all the rest is neither good nor evil; tion of our mind and by education. (Taidela ; i. 2.
it concerns us not, it is beyond our reach (i. 13. 9, 6, 22. 9, ii. 17. 7. ) The practice in theory is the
25. 1, ii. 5. 4); it is something external, merely a easier part; the application in life is the more dif-
subject for our choice (i. 29. 1, ii. 16. 1, 19. 3:2, ficult one, and is the object of all theory. (i. 26. 3,
iv. 10. 26); in itself it is indifferent, but its appli- | 29. 35. ) We find that as far as practical appli-
cation is not indifferent (ii. 5. 1, 6. 1), and its ap- cation is concerned, many men are Épicureans and
plication is either consistent with or contrary to effeminate Peripatetics, though they profess the
nature. (ii. 5. 24. ) The choice, and consequently doctrines of the Stoics and Cynics. (ii. 19. 20, 12
a
## p. 33 (#49) ##############################################
EPICTETUS.
33
EPICURUS.
caeus.
1, 18. 26, iii. 26. 13, iv. 1. 138, 4. 14. 43, 6. 15. ) | philosopher was expected to shew in his relation
In order to obtain a mastery in the application of to the vicissitudes of the world and of man. The
moral principles to life, a continued practice is re- maxim suffer and abstain (from evil) (Fragm. 179;
quired; but this practice is first and chiefly to be comp. Dissert. iv. 8. 25; Gell. xvii. 19), which
directed towards a control of our conceptions, and he followed throughout his life, was based with
thereby also of our passions and desires, which are him on the firm belief in a wise and benevolent
themselves only modes of conception (ii. 18. 1, &c. , government of Providence; and in this respect he
29, iv. 10. 26), and as such they press and force approaches the Christian doctrine more than any
us; one person being more under the influence of of the carlier Stoios, though there is not a trace in
this kind, and another more under the influence of the Epictetea to shew that he was acquainted with
another kind; for which reason every one, according Christianity, and still less, that he had adopted
to his personal peculiarity, must oppose to them a Christianity, either in part or entirely. (Chr. Crelius,
continued practice. (i. 25. 26, ii. 16. 22. ) This De úmepoópois el dobdois Epicteti Dissertat.
Lip
first and most essential practice must be accompa- sine, 1711-16; comp. Brucker in Temp. Helvet.
nied by a second, which is directed towards that iii. 2. p. 200. )
[CH. A. B. ]
which is appropriate (duty), and a third, the object EPİCTEʻTUS ('EXIKTnTos), a physician men-
of which is surety, truth, and certainty ; but the tioned by Symmachus (Epist. x. 47), who attained
latter must not pretend to supplant the former. to the title and dignity of Archiater in the time of
(iii
. 2. 6, 12. 12, &c. ) The unerring desire after Theodosius the Great, A. D. 379-395. (W. A. G. )
what is good, the absolute avoidance of what is EPICU'RIUS ('Erikoúpos), the helper, a sur-
bad, the desire ever directed towards the appro- name of Apollo, under which he was worshipped
priate, carefully-weighed resolutions, and a full at Bassae in Arcadia. Every year a wild boar
consent to them, are the nerves of the philosopher. was sacrificed to him in his temple on mount Ly-
(ü. 8. 29. ) Throngh them he acquires freedom
He had received this surname because he
and entire independence of everything which is had at one time delivered the country from a pes-
not subject to his choice (iv. 4. 39, iii. 22. 13), tilence. (Paus. viii. 38. § 6, 41. $ 5. ) (L. S. ]
and in confiding submission he leaves the manage- EPICU'RUS ('Erikoupos), a celebrated Greek
ment of it to Providence, whose universal rule philosopher and the founder of a philosophical
cannot escape the eye of an unbiassed and grateful school called after him the Epicurean. He was a
observer of the occurrences in the world. (i. 6. 9, son of Neocles and Charestrata, and belonged to
4, 12, 13, 14, 16, 30, i. 14. 26, üi. 17. ) In this the Attic demos of Gargettus, whence he is some-
submissive confidence, and the consciousness of its times simply called the Gargertian. (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
necessity, in order to be able to preserve unchanged | 16. ) He was born, however, in the island of Samos,
our outward peace of mind in all the occurrences in B. C. 342, for his father was one of the Athenian
of life, in sorrow and in want, we see the spirit of cleruchi, who went to Samos and received lands
the modern, and we may say, ennobled Porch ; the there. Epicurus spent the first eighteen years of
same spirit is expressed the energy and purity his life at Samos, and then repaired to Athens, in
of its sentiments, and in the giving up of principles B. C. 323, where Xenocrates was then at the head
whose harshness and untenableness arose from the of the academy, by whom Epicurus is said to have
inflexible and abstract consistency of the earlier been instructed, though Epicurus himself denied
Porch.
it. (Diog. Laërt. x. 13; Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 26. )
Epictetus is well aware, that man, as such, is a He did not, however, stay at Athens long, for after
member of the great cosmic community of gods and the outbreak of the Lamian war he went to Cola
men, and also that he is a member of the commu- phon, where his father was then residing, and en-
nities of state and family, and that he stands to gaged in teaching. Epicurus followed the example
them in the same relation as a limb to the whole of his father: he collected pupils and is said to
organic body, and that therefore he can attain his have instructed them in grammar, until gradually
full development only with them. (ii. 5. 26, 10. 3, his attention was drawn towards philosophy.
&c. , 2. 19, 13. ) He recognizes the necessity of Epicurus himself asserted that he bad entered upon
love and confidence (ii. 22. 4, 1), and he demands his philosophical studies at the early age of four-
of the Cynic, that is, the true philosopher, to re- teen, while according to others it was not till five
nounce marriage and family life, only that he may or six years later. Some said that he was led to
devote himself with all his powers to the service of the study of philosophy by his contempt of the
the deity, and to the duties of an unlimited phi- rhetoricians and grammarians who were unable to
lanthropy. (iii. 22. 67. &c. ) It is true that with explain to bim the passage in Hesiod about Chaos ;
Epictetus, too, the place of a political system and a and others said that the first impulse was given to
considerable portion of ethics, are supplied by the him by the works of Democritus, which fell into his
ideal of a philosopher,-- but how could a living hands by accident. It is at any rate undeniable
consciousness of the nature of a state have been that the atomistic doctrines of Democritus exer-
formed in his time and in his circumstances ? In cised a very great influence upon Epicurus, though
his endeavours to establish in himself and others a he asserted that he was perfectly independent of
moral standard, unaffected by the corruptions of all the philosophical schools of the time, and en-
his age, he does not perceive its close and necessary deavoured to solve the great problems of life by
connexion with the active and unchecked scientific independent thought and investigation, From
and artistic efforts. But he acknowledges their Colophon Epicurus went to Mytilene and Lamp-
moral importance more than his predecessors, and sacus, in which places he was engaged for five years
he is impressed with the conviction, that the indi- in teaching philosophy. In B. c. 306, when he
vidual must live for the whole, although he is not had attained the age of 35, he again went to
able to determine the how in a manner productive Athens. He there purchased for eighty minae a
of great results. Above all things, however, he garden-the famous Knnou ’Erikoúpou which ap-
gave up the proud self-sufficiency which the Stoic ! parently was situated in the heart of the city, and in
VOL. IJ.
D
## p. 34 (#50) ##############################################
34
EPICURUS.
EPICURUS.
which he established his philosophical school. Sur-states that he wrote about 300 volumes (KÚM. v8 por).
rounded by numerous friends and pupils and by his His works, however, are said to have been full of re-
three brothers, Neocles, Charidemus, and Aristobu- petitions and quotations of authorities. A list of the
lus, who likewise devoted themselves to the study best of his works is given by Diogenes (1. 27, &c. ),
of philosophy, Epicurus spent the remainder of his and among them we may mention the Nepl ovoras
life in his garden at Athens. His mode of living in 37 books, nepi drów kał Kevoù, 'EniTout Tv
was simple, temperate, and cheerful, and the asper- προς φυσικούς, Προς τους Μεγαρικούς διαπορίαι,
sions of comic poets and of later philosophers who | Κύριαι δόξαι, Περί τέλους, Περί κριτηρίου ή κανών,
were opposed to his philosophy and describe him as | Χαιρέδημος η περί θεών, Περί βίων in three books,
a person devoted to sensual pleasures, do not seem | Περί της εν τη ατόμω γωνίας, Περί ειμαρμένης,
entitled to the least credit, although they have suc- Περί ειδώλων, Περί δικαιοσύνης και των άλλων
ceeded in rendering his name proverbial with pos- apetw, and 'Emiotoral. Of his epistles four are
terity for a sensualist or debauchee. The accounts preserved in Diogenes. (x. 22, 35, &c. , 84, &c. ,
of his connexion with Leontium, Marmarium, and 122, &c. ) The first is very brief and was ad-
other well known hetaerae of the time. perhaps be- dressed by Epicurus just before his death to Ido-
long to the same kind of slander and calumny in meneus. "The three others are of far greater im-
which his enemies indulged. The life in Diogenes portance : the first of them is addressed to one
Laërtius affords abundant proof that Epicurus was Herodotus, and contains an outline of the Canon and
a man of simple, pure, and temperate habits, a the Physica; the second, addressed to Pythocles, con-
kind-hearted friend, and even a patriotic citizen. tains his theory about meteors, and the third, which
He kept aloof from the political parties of the is addressed to Menoeceus, gives a concise view of
time, and took no part in public affairs. His his ethics, so that these three Epistles, the genuine-
maxim was adde Bicoas, which was partly the ness of which can scarcely be doubted, furnish us
result of his peculiar philosophy, and partly of the an outline of his whole philosophical system. An
political condition of Athens, which drove men to abridgement of them is preserved in Endocia,
seek in themselves happiness and consolation for p: 173, &c. They were edited separately by
the loss of political freedom. During the latter Nürnberger in his edition of the tenth book of
period of his life Epicurus was afflicted with severe Diogenes Laërtius, Nürnberg. , 1791, 8vo. The
sufferings, and for many years he was unable to letters, to Herodotus and Pythocles were edited
walk. In the end his sufferings were increased separately by J. G. Schneider under the title of
by the formation of a stone in his bladder, which Epicuri Physica et Meteorologica duabus Epis-
terminated fatally after a severe illness of a fort-tolis comprehensa, Leipzig, 1813, 8vo. These
night. He bore his sufferings with a truly philo- | letters, together with the above mentioned Kúpiau
sophical patience, cheerfulness, and courage, and 86£at, that is, forty-four propositions containing the
died at the age of 72, in Olymp. 127. 2, or B. c. 270. substance of the ethical philosophy of Epicurus,
His will, which is preserved in Diogenes Laërtius which are likewise preserved in Diogenes, must be
(x. 16, &c. ), shews the same mildness of character our principal guides in examining and judging of
and the same kind disposition and attachment to the Epicurean philosophy. All the other works of
his friends, which he had manifested throughout Epicurus have perished, with the exception of a
life. Among his many pupils Epicurus himself considerable number of fragments. Some parts of
gave the preference to Metrodorus of Lampsacus, the above-mentioned work, liepl oúrews, espe
whom he used to call the philosopher, and whom he cially of the second and eleventh books, which
would have appointed to succeed him (Diog. treat of the eldwe have been found among the
Laërt. x. 22, &c. ); but Metrodorus died seven rolls at Herculaneum, and are published in C.
years before his master, and in his will Epicurus Corsini's Volumin. Herculan. vol. ii. Naples, 1809,
appointed Hermarchus of Mytilene his successor from which they were reprinted separately by
in the management of his school at Athens. J. C. Orelli, Leipzig, 1818, 8vo. Some fragments
Apollodorus, the Epicurean, wrote a life of Epicu- of the tenth book of the same work have been
rus, of which Diogenes made great use in his ac- edited by J. Th. Kreissig in his Comment. de
count of Epicurus, but this is now lost, and our Sallust. Ilistor. Fragm. p. 237, &c. If we may
principal source of infornation respecting Epicurus judge of the style of Epicurus from these few
is the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, who how- remains, it must be owned that it is clear and
ever, as usual, only puts together what he finds in animated, though it is not distinguished for any
others ; but at the same time he furnishes us some other peculiar merits.
very important documents, such as his will, four With regard to the philosophical system of Epi-
letters and the kúplai dótas, of which we shall curus, there is scarcely a philosopher in all antiquity
speak below.
With the account of Diogenes who boasted so much as Epicurus of being inde
we have to compare the philosophical poem of Lu- pendent of all his predecessors, and those who
cretius, and the remarks and criticisms which are were believed to have been his teachers were
scattered in the works of later Greek and Roman treated by him with scom and bitter hostility.
writers, nearly all of whom, however, wrote in a He prided himself upon being an autodidaktos,
hostile spirit about Epicurus and his philosophy but even a superficial glance at his philosophy
and must therefore be used with great caution. shews that he was not a little indebted to the
Among them we must mention Cicero in his philo. Cyrenaics on the one hand and to Democritus
sophical treatises, especially the De Finibus, on the other. As far as the ethical part of his phi-
and the De Natura Deorum; Seneca in his losophy is concerned thus much may be admitted,
letter to Lucilius, and some treatises of Plutarch in that, like other systems of the time, it arose from
his so-called Moralia.
the peculiar circumstances in which the Greek
Epicurus appears to have been one of the most states were placed. Thinking men were led to
prolific of all the ancient Greek writers. Diogenes seek within them that which they could not find
Laërtius (X. 26), who calls him hol vypaputatos, / without. Political freedom had to a great extent
## p. 35 (#51) ##############################################
EPICURUS.
35
EPICYDES.
3.
volumes (κύλοδροι)
have been fall of the
orities. A list of the
Diogenes (z. 27, &c. )
ion the Περί φύσεως
κενού, Επιτομή των
εγαρικούς διαπερίας,
1 κριτηρίου ή κανών,
Biw in three books,
Ε, Περί ειμαρμένης,
της και των άλλων
nis epistles four are
35, &c. , 84, &r,
brief and was a
- his death to Ide
of far greater is-
addressed to be
ne of the Canap and
d to Pythocles, con
nd the third, which
s a concise view of
sistles, the genuine
Dubted, furnish as
nical systern. AD
rved in Endocis,
ed separately by
he tenth book of
1791, 870. The
cles were edited
ander the title of
ma duabus Epés
3, 8vo. These
mentioned Kúpiai
is containing the
oby of Epicurus,
Diogenes, must be
; and judging of
le other works of
: exception of a
Some parts of
! φύσεως, εpe
i books, which
und among the
published in C.
. Naples, 1809,
separately by
Some fragments
'ork have been
s Comment de
If we may
rom these fez
it is clear and
lished for any
disappeared, and philosophers endeavoured to estab- | laborious business of creating the world; and as
lish an internal freedom based upon ethical princi- the government of the world would interfere with
ples, and to maintain it in spite of outward oppres- their happiness, he conceived the gods as exercising
sion, no less than to secure it against man's own no influence whatever upon the world or man.
passions and evil propensities Perfect independ- The number of pupils of Epicurus whe, propa-
ence, self reliance, and contentment, therefore, gated his doctrines, was extremely great ; but his
were regarded as the highest good and as the philosophy received no further development at
qualities which alone could make men happy, and their hands, except perhaps that in subsequent
as human happiness was with Epicurus the ultimate times his lofty notion of pleasure and happiness
end of all philosophy, it was necessary for him to was reduced to that of material and sensual plea-
make ethics the most essential part, and as it were sure. His immediate disciples adopted and followed
the centre of his whole philosophy. He had little his doctrines with the most scrupulous conscien-
esteem for logic and dialectics, but as he could not tiousness : they were attached and devoted to their
altogether do without them, he prefixed to his master in a manner which has rarely been equalled
ethics a canon, or an introduction to ascertain the either in ancient or modern times: their esteem,
criterium which was to guide him in his search love, and veneration for him almost bordered upon
after truth and in distinguishing good from evil. worship; they are said to have committed his
His criteria themselves were derived from sensuous works to memory; they had his portrait engraved
perception combined with thought and reflection. upon rings and drinking vessels, and celebrated
We obtain our knowledge and form our concep- his birthday every year. Athens honoured him
tions of things, according to him, through eldwia, with bronze statues. But notwithstanding the
i e. images of things which are reflected from them, extraordinary devotion of his pupils and friends,
and pass through our senses into our minds. Such whose number, says Diogenes, exceeded that of
a theory is destructive of all absolute truth, and a the population of whole towns, there is no philoso-
mere momentary impression upon our senses or pher in antiquity who has been so violently at-
feelings is substituted for it. His ethical theory tacked, and whose ethical doctrines have been so
was based upon the dogma of the Cyrenaics, that much mistaken and misunderstood, as Epicurus.
pleasure constitutes the highest happiness, and The cause of this singular phaenomenon was partly
must consequently be the end of all human exer- a superficial knowledge of his philosophy, of which
tions. Epicurus, however, developed and ennobled Cicero, for example, is guilty to a very great extent,
this theory in a manner which constitutes the and partly also the conduct of men who called
peculiarity and real merit of his philosophy, and themselves Epicureans, and, taking advantage of
which gained for him so many friends and admirers the facility with which his ethical theory was made
both in antiquity and in modern times. Pleasure the handmaid of a sensual and debauched life, gave
with him was not a mere momentary and transitory themselves up to the enjoyment of sensual plea-
sensation, but he conceived it as something lasting sures. At Rome, and during the time of Roman
and imperishable, consisting in pure and noble ascendancy in the ancient world, the philosophy of
mental enjoyments, that is, in drapatla and drovía, Epicurus never took any firm root; and it is then
or the freedom from pain and from all influences and there that, owing to the paramount influence
which disturb the peace of our mind, and thereby of the Stoic philosophy, we meet with the bit-
our happiness, which is the result of it. The terest antagonists of Epicurus. The disputes
summum bonum, according to him, consisted in this for and against his philosophy, however, are not
peace of mind; and the great problem of his ethics, confined to antiquity; they were renewed at the
therefore, was to shew how it was to be attained, time of the revival of letters, and are continued to
and ethics was not only the principal branch of the present day.
