No More Learning

--2. II/<<f Ni/coxXra, Discourse addressed to
Kicocles II, son of Evagoras, and prince of Salamis
in Cyprus, on the art of reigning. --3. NtnonX^r, Nie-
oeles, a discourse composed for this prince, to be pro-
uunced by him, and treating of the duties of subjects
towards their sovereigns. Nicocles is said to have
presented Isocrates, in return, with twenty talents.
This piece is sometimes cited under the name of the
Cyprian Discourse, Kiiirptoc ? . 6yoe. Five other dis-
courses of Isocrates are of the deliberative kind. 1.
The Panegyric, of which we have already spoken. --
2. QiXtiriroc, or Hp&e toihiirirov, "Discourse address-
ed to Philip of Macedon," to induce him to act as me-
diator between the Greek cities, and to make war
against Persia. --3. 'Apxiia/ioc, Archidamus. Under
the nsme of this prince, who afterward ascended the
throne of Sparta, the orator endeavours to persuade
the Lacedemonians, after the battle of Mantinea, not
to relinquish Messenia. --4 'ApeionayiTindc, Areopa-
giticus. One of the best discourses of Isocrates. In
it he counsels the Athenians to re-establish the con-
stitution of Solon, as modified byClisthenes. --5. Ilepi
elpqvtic, fj ovpiiaxtKdc, " Of Peace," or, "Respecting
tie Allies. " In this discourse, pronounced after the
commencement of the social war, Isocrates advises
the Athenians to make peace with the inhabitants of
Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium. We have also four
discourses by this writer that fall under the head of
tioges (iyKufiiaariKoi): viz. , 1. Eiayopae, Evagoras.
A funeral oration on Evagoras, king of Cyprus, and
father of Nicocles, who had been assassinated, 01.
101, 3. --2. 'Eton? ? tyxu/uov, Eloge on Helen, a
? ? piece full of pleasing digressions. --3. Qovaiptc, Ba-
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? I& s
1ST
tinted A more correct edition was published bv
Drcllius, in 1814, 8vo, with a double commentary,
critical and philological, in German; and also a small-
er edition, containing merely the Greek text with va-
rious readings. These two editions are more accu-
rate t. ian th*- nf Milan. (Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. , vol.
2, p. 208, serf. --Hoffmann, Lex. BMiograph. , vol.
t, p. 620. )
IssA, one of the smallest of the Dalmatian islands,
cut the best known in history. It is mentioned by
Scylax as a Greek colony (p. 8), which, according to
Scymnus of Chios, was sent from Syracuse (v. 412).
Issa is often alluded to by Polybius in his account of
the Illyrian war. It was attacked by Teuta; but the
aiege was raised on the appearance of the Roman fleet,
and the inhabitants immediately placed themselves
under the protection of that power. (Appian, Illyr. ,
7. --Poiyb. , 2, 11. ) It became afterward a constant
station for the Roman galleys in their wars with the
kings of Macedon. (Lh>. , 43, 9. ) In Caesar's time
the town appears to have been very flourishing, for it
is styled "nobilistimum earum regionum oppidum"
(B. Alex. , 47), and Pliny informs us that the inhabi-
tants were Roman citizens. (Plin. , 3, 21. ) Athe-
naeus states that the wine of this island was much es-
teemed (I, 22). Its present name is Lissa. (Cra-
mer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 44. )
Issedonks, the principal nation in Series, whose
metropolis was Sera, now Kant-schu, in the Chinese
irovince of Sken-Si, without the great wall. This
? Miy has been erroneously confounded with Pekin, tho
capital of China, which is 300 leagues distant. They
Had also two towns, both called Issedon, but distin-
guished by the epithets of Serica and Scythica. (Ptol.
--Bischoff und MuiUr, Wirlcrb. der Geogr. , p. 649. )
Isscs, a town of Cilicia Campestris, at tho foot of
the main chain of Amanus, and nearly at the centre
of the head of the gulf to which it gave its name (Issi-
cus Sinus). Xenophon describes Issus (*I<r<rot, in the
plural) as a considerable town in his time. Cyrus
remained here three days, and was joined by his fleet
from the Peloponnesus. These ships anchored close
to the shore, where Cyrus had his quarters. (Anab ,
1. 4. --Compare Arrian, Exp. Alex. , 2, 7. -- Diod.
Sic. , 17,32 ) Issus was famous for the victory gained
here by Alexander over Darius. Tho error on the
part of the Persian monarch was in selecting so con-
tracted a spot for a pitched battle. The breadth of
the plain of Issus, between the sea and the mountains,
appears from Callisthenes, quoted by Polybius, not to
exceed fourteen stadia, less than two miles, a space
very inadequate for the manoeuvres of so large an ar-
my as that of Darius. The ground was, besides, bro-
ken, and intersected by many ravines and torrents
which descended from the mountains. The principal
one of these, and which is frequently mentioned in the
narrative of this momentous battle, is the Pinarus.
The two armies were at first drawn up on opposite
banks of this stream; Darius on the side of Issus, Al-
exander towards Syria. A clear notion of the whole
affair may be obtained from tho narratives of Arrian,
Curtius, and Plutarch, and from the critical remarks
of Polybius on the statement of Callisthenes. The
town of Issus, in Strabo's time, was only a small place
with a port. (Strab. , 676. ) Stephanus says it was
called Nicopolis, in consequence of the victory gained
by Alexander (*. v. 'loooe). Strabo, however, speaks
? ? ef Nicopolis as a distinct place from Issus. Cicero
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? ITA
ITALIA
Kura-hcrmon, or "the black fortress. " Istropolis is
said to have been founded bv a Milesian colonv.
(Plin, 4, 11. )
ItabyrIus, a mountain of Oalilca Inferior, near the
southern limits of the tribe of Zebulon, and southeast
from Carmel. According to Josephus (Bell. Jud. , 4,6),
it was 30 stadia high, and had on its summit a plain
of V. stadia in extent. Its modern name is Thabor.
This mountain is supposed by some to have been the
scene of our Saviour's transfiguration. Jerome, Cy-
ril), and other writers, sre in favour of the position,
but it is opposed by Reland (Pal<utin. , p. 247). The
name Thabor or Tabor, which was also the ancient
one among the natives, appears to be derived from the
Hebrew labbor, "a height" or "summit. " (Reland,
I. e. ) The Greek writers call it Qa6up and 'AraW-
piov (or itodvoiov) opoc. (Compare the Jupiter Ala-
byrius of Rhodes and Agrigentum, and the remarks
of Hitter, Vorhalle, p. 339. ) On the summit of this
mountain was situate a fortified town called Atabyrion.
(Polyb. , 5, 70. --Via". Atabyrion. ) Mount Thabor is
situate two leagues southeast of Nazareth, rising out
of the great plain of Esdraelon, at its eastern side. Its
figure is that of a truncated cone, and its elevation,
according to Buckingham, about 1000 feet; but, from
the circumstance mentioned by Burckhardt, of thick
clouds resting on it in the morning in summer, and his
being an hour in ascending it, it may perhaps be con-
sidered as higher than Buckingham supposed, though,
from the same time occupied in the ascent, not more
than 400 or 500 feet, or from 1400 to 1500 in all. It
is represented as entirely calcareous. Dr. Richardson
describes it as a dark-looking, insulated conical mount-
ain, rising like a tower to a considerable height above
those around it. On the summit is a plain about a
mile in circumference, which shows the remains of
the ancient fortress mentioned above. The view
from this spot is said to be one of the finest in the
5"untry.
Italia, a celebrated country of Europe, bounded on
the ncrth by the Alps, on the south by the Ionian Sea,
on the northeast by the Adriatic or Mare Superum,
and on the southwest, by tho Mare Tyrrhcnum or In-
ferum. It was called Hosperia by the Greeks, from
its western situation in relation to Greece (Virg. ,
JEn. , 1, 530), and received also from the Latin poets
the appellation of Ausonia (Virg. , JEn. , 7, 54), Sa-
turnia (Virg. , Georg. , 2, 173), and ffinotria. The
name Italia some writers deduce from Italus, a chief
of the CEnotri or Siculi (Antioch. Syrac. , ap. Dion.
Hal. , 1,2. --Thucyd. , 6,2). Others sought the origin
of the term in the Greek word iraXor, or the Latin
titulus, which corresponds to it (Varro, R. R , 2, 5.
--Dion. Hal. , 1, 35); and others again make the
name to have belonged originally to a small canton in
Calabria, and to have become gradually common to
the whole country. The ancients differed from us in
their application of names to countries. They re-
garded the name as belonging to tho people, not to
the land itself; and in this they were more correct
than wo are, who call nations after the countries they
inhabit. Asia Minor, for example, was an appellation
unknown to the earlier classic writers, and only began
to come into use after the country had fallen into the
hands <if the Romans. Previous to this, the different
. nations which peopled that peninsula had their re-
spective names, and were known by these. In the
? ? same way, a general name for what we now term Italy
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? TTAT. 1A.
ITALIA.
spread fror. i the Alps to the southernmost extremity
of the land. T\iis position receives very strong sup-
port from the fact that the name Italus w as in gen-
eral use among the various nations of the Italian
peninsula. In the language cf fable it was the appel-
lation of an ancient monarch. We find mention made
of a King Italus among the Ausones and Opici, and
likewise among lb* Morgetes, Siculi, and Sabini.
We find, moreover, all these early tribes using one
lommon dialect, the Oscan. Now, that such a being
is lulus ever existed, appears extremely improbable;
ind still more so the assertion that Italy was named
after this ancient king. Daily experience proves that
cettr. irU* are called after the nations who inhabit
them; and few, if any, examples can be adduced of
nations taking an appellation from their rulers. In the
? resent case it appears scarcely credible. We know
if no period when the different Italian tribes were
inder the control of a single ruler, and yet each have
heir Italus.
Was there a monarch of this name in
very district cf Italy t and, still more, did each sep-
Tate community form the resolution of deriving from
deir lespective monarch a name for themselves and
iie region they inhabited, so that, finally, the common
>>ame for the whole land becamo Italia 1 Either sup-
position is absurd. --The name Italus, then, was the
jeneric name of the whole race, and the land was
called after it, each community being known at the
same time by a specific and peculiar appellation, as
Latini, Umbri, exi. The fact of the universal preva-
lence of the Oscin tongue is strongly corroborative of
what has just been advanced. But, it may be con-
tended, no proof exists that any king named Italus was
acknowledged by the traditions of the Tusci or Umbri.
The answer is an easy one. Antiquity makes mention
of these as the piogenitors of the Latini, among whom
? King Italus apj-ears; and Scymnus records an old
lut'nority, which snakes the Umbri to have been de-
scended from La'. inus, the son of Ulysses and Circe.
That these two nations, moreover, spoke a language
based on the old Italic or Oscan form of speech, was
discovered by thf. Romans in the case of the Rheti, a
branch of the former, who had retired to thefAlps
cpon the invasion of the Gauls. The original popula-
tion of Italy then was composed of the Itali. To
these came various nations, which we shall now enu-
merate in the order of history. The earliest of these
new-comers appear to have been the Illyrian tribes,
and, i'i particular, I ho Libumi, who may, with truth, be
regr. ded as the earl iest of European navigators. They
extended thcmselvi-s along the coast of the Adriatic as
far as Iipygia. Jiiext in the order of lime were the
Veneti, a branch o) the great Sclavonic race (vid. Ve-
neti), who settled between the mouths of the Po and
the Illyrian Alps. Were they the earliest possessors
of this part of Italy, or did they expel the Tuscan Eu-
ganei 7 All is unce tainty. Of the origin of the great
Etrurian nation, we have already spoken under tho ar-
ticle Hctruria. Thn Siculi, who appear to have been
'he original inhabitants of Latium, and who were sub-
sequently driven out and retired to Sicily (vid. Siculi),
are falsely considered by some to have been of Iberian
origin. A fourth people, however, who actually came
into Italy, were '-ho Greeks. Before the time of the
Trojan war th' re are no traces of any such emigration;
hot after \>x termination of that contest, accident
Shrew mativ of the returning bands upon the Italian
? ? eoast. We find them in Apulia, on the Sinus Taren-
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? ITALIA.
ITALIA.
me peninsular form of Italy mast at all limes have had
an effect in soften. ng the climate, still the woods and
marshes of Cisalpine Gaul, and the perpetual snows of
the Alps, far more extensive than at present, owing to
the then uncultivated and uncleared state of Switzer-
land and Germany, could not but have been felt even
in the neighbourhood of Rome. Besides, even on the
Apennines, and in Etruria and Latium, the forests oc-
cupied a far greater apace than in modern times; this
would increase the quantity of rain, and, consequently,
the volume of water in the rivers; the floods would
be greater and more numerous, and, before man's do-
minion had completely subdued the whole country,
there would be large accumulations of water in the low
grounds, which would still farther increase the coldness
of the atmosphere. The language of ancient writers,
on the whole, favours the same conclusion, that the
Roman winter, in their days, was more severe than it
is at present. It is by no means easy to know what
weight is to be given to the language of the poets, nor
how far particular descriptions or expressions may have
been occasioned by peculiar local circumstances. The
statement of the younger Pliny (Evitt. , 2,17), that the
bay-tree would rarely live through the winter without
shelter, either at Rome or at his own villa at Lanuvium,
if taken absolutely, would prove too much; for, although
the bay is less hardy than some other evergreens, yet
how can it be conceived that a climate in which the
olive would flourish could be too severe for the bay 1
There must either have been some local peculiarity of
winds or soil which the tree did not like, or else the fact,
as is sometimes the case, must have been too hastily
assumed; and men were afraid, from long custom, to
! eave the bay unprotected in the winter, although, in
/act, they might have done it with safety. Yet the
elder Pliny (17, 2) speaks of long snows being useful
to the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of
the mountains; and a long snow lying in the valleys
of centra! or southern Italy would surely be a very un-
teard-of phenomenon now. Again: the freezing of
the rivers, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, is an
image of winter which could not, we think, naturally
, *uggcst itself tj Italian poets of the present day, at
any point to the south of the Apennines. Other ar-
guments to the same effect may be seen in a paper by
Dames Barrington, in the 58th volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Gibbon, too, after stating the
arguments on both sides of the question, comes to the
same conclusion. {Misc. Works, I. c. ) He quotes,
however, the Abbe de Longuerue as saying that the
Tiber was frozen in the bitter winter of 1709. --Again:
the olive, which cannot bear a continuance of severe
cold, was not introduced into Italy till long after the
vine: Feneatella asserted, that its cultivation was un-
known as late as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus
(Plin. , 15, 1); and such was the notion entertained
of the cold of all inland countries, that Theophrastus
(Plin. , 15, 1) held it impossible to cultivate the olive
at the distance of more than 400 stadia from the sea.
But the cold of winter is perfectly consistent with great
heat in the summer. The vine is cultivated with suc-
cess on the Rhine, in the latitude of Devonshire and
Cornwall, although the winter at Coblentz and Bonn
is far more severe than it is in Westmoreland; and
evergreens will flourish through the winter in the
Westmoreland valleys far better than on the Rhine or
in the heart of France. The summer heat of Italy
? ? was probably much the same in ancient times as it is
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? ITH
JUB
<<ei from the surface, has been the increased unhealthi-
ntsa of the country, and the more extended range of
the malaria. 'ArnolVt History of Rome, vol. 1, p.
501, seqq. )
ItalIca, I. the capital of the Peligni in Italy. (Vid.
Cornnium. j--II. A city of Spain, north of Mispalis,
and situate on the western side of the river Banis.
(Strabo, Hl. --Oros. , 5, 23. ) It was founded by Pub-
lius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here
tho old soldiers whom age had incapacitated from the
performance of military service. (Appian, B. Hisp. ,
c. 38 -- Cat. , B. Civ. , 2, 20. ) It was the birthplace
of the Emperor Trajan, and is supposed to correspond
with Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from the
city of Seville. (Surita, ad It. Ant. , p. 413, 432. --
Florez, Esp. S. F. , 12, p. 227. --Vkert, Geogr. , vol.
S, p. 372. )
ItalIcus, a poet. (Vid. Sihua Italicus. )
Italus, a fabled monarch of early Italy. (Consult
remarks under the article Italia, page 693, col. 1. )
Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian Sea, north-
east of Cephallenia. It lies directly south of Leuca-
dia, from which it is distant about six miles. The ex-
tent of this celebrated island, as given by ancient au-
thorities, does not correspond with modern computa-
tion. Dicaarchus describes it as narrow, and meas-
uring eighty stadia, meaning probably in length (Grac.
Stat. v. 51), but Strabo (455) affirms, in circumfer-
ence, which is very wide of the truth, since it is not
less than thirty miles in circuit, or, according to Pliny
(4, 12), twenty-fire. Its length is nearly seventeen
miles, but its breadth not more than four. Ithaca is
well known as the native island of Ulysses. Eusta-
thius asserts (ad 11. , 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207). That it was throughout rugged and
mountainous we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey, but especially from the fourth book, v.
805, scqq--It is evident, from several passages of the
same poem, that there was also a city named Ithaca,
probably the capital of the island, and the residence of
Ulysses (3,80). Its ruins are generally identified with
those crowning the summit of the hill of Aito. (Dod-
vell, vol. I, p. 66. ) "The Venetian geographers,"
observes Sir William Gell, "have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of
the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by giving in their
charts the name of Vol di Compare to this island.
That name, however, is totally unknown in the coun-
try, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the
upper ranks, and Theaki by the vulgar. It has been
asserted in the north of Europe, that Ithaca is too in-
considerable a rock to have produced any contingent of
ships which could er. tr. '. e its king to so much consider-
ation among the neighbouring isles; yet the unrivalled
excellence of its port has in modern times created a
fleet of 50 vessels of all denominations, which trade to
every part of the Mediterranean, and from which four
might be selected capable of transporting the whole
army of Ulysses to the shores of Asia. " The same
writer nukes the population of the island 8000. It is
said to contain sixty-six square miles. (GcWs Geog-
raphy and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30. )
Ithacesia, I. three islands opposite Vibo, on the
coast of Bruttium. They are thought to answer to
the modern Brace*, Praca, and Torricella. (Bisehqff
and Miller, Worterb. der Geogr. , p. 651. )--II. Baira
? ? is called by Silius Italicus "sedes Ithacesia Baii," be-
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? JTJD
moved, it is said, to this course by a gross insult which,
in his youth, he had received from Cesar. He gained,
B. C. 49, a great victory over Curio, Ceaar's lieuten-
ant in Africa. After the battle of Pharaalia and the
death of Pompey, he continued steady to his cause;
and when Caesar invaded Africa, B. C. 46, he support-
ad Scipio and Cato with all his power, and in the first
instance reduced the dictator to much difficulty. The
battle of Thapsus, however, turned the scale in Cae-
aar'a favour. Juba fled, and, finding that his subjects
would not receive him, put an end to his life in de-
spair, along with Petreius. (Vid. Petreius. ) His con-
nexion with Cato has suggested the underplot of Ad-
dison's tragedy. (Plut. , Vit. Pomp. --Id. , Vit. Cas.
--Ftor. , 4, 13. -- Sutton. , Vit. Jul. , 35. -- Lucan, 4,
490. --Patere. , 2, 54. )--II. The second of the name,
was son of the preceding. He was carried to Rome
by Cesar, kindly treated, and well and learnedly ed-
ucated. He gained the friendship, and fought in the
cause, of Augustus, who gave him the kingdom of
Mauritania, his paternal kingdom of Numidia having
been erected into a Roman province. Juba cultivated
diligently the arts of peace, was beloved by his sub-
ccts, and had a high reputation for learning. He
wrote, in Greek, of Arabia, with observations on its
natural history; of Assyria; of Rome; of painting
and painters; of theatres; of the qualities of animals;
on the source of the Nile, dec, all which arc now lost.
Juba married Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Strabo, in his sixth book,
speaks of Juba as living, and in his seventeenth and
last book as then just dead. This would probably fix
his death about A. D. 17. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ,
vol. 2, p. 651, in notis. --Phot. , Cod. , 161. --Athena-
us, 8, p. 343, e. -- Plut. , Mar. , p. 269, c, dec. -r-
Consult the dissertation of the Abbe Sevin, Sur la Vit
tt Us Outrages de Juba, in the Mem. de VAead.