prince who had acquired it by his
boldness
and pru-
dence, to one born in the palace, the favourite son of
the favourite queen, who had been accustomed, from
his infancy, to regard the kingdom as his inheritance,
perhaps to think that the blood of Cyrus which flowed
in his veins raised him above his father.
dence, to one born in the palace, the favourite son of
the favourite queen, who had been accustomed, from
his infancy, to regard the kingdom as his inheritance,
perhaps to think that the blood of Cyrus which flowed
in his veins raised him above his father.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
, vol.
1, p.
22, ed Rciskt.
)
The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthemus, in Stephanus
of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apol-
lonius Rhodius : by Hephasslion also (p. 14, ed. Gait/. ).
The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in
his "Historic orum Gracorum Anliquiss. Frogmen-
fa," Heidelb. , 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit. ,
vol. 2, p. 109, seqq. )
Xenoclks, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by
Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on
one occasion (Olym. 91. 2, B. C. 415). He was of
dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus.
In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term /ir/xavoSi^ac
to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xen-
ocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and
stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his
gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed. , p. 66. )
Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, born at
Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B. C. 400. H first
attached himself to /Eschines, but afterward became
a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating
his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, com-
paring him with Aristotle, who was also one of his
pupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the
spar, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required
the curb. His temper was,glooiny, his aspect severe,
and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These
material defects his master took great pains to cor-
rect, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Gra-
- ces; and tlfc pupil was patient of instruction, and
knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He
compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice,
which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains what-
ever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates
* attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a vio-
lent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut
iff his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this,"
ajointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc-
rates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after
his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in
the second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad,
B. C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the
auccessor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this
time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it
should seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-
pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme-
diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi-
tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con-
tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel-
ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom,
but also for his virtues. (Val. Max. , 2, 10. --Cie. , ad
Alt. , 2, 16. -- Diog. Laert. , 4, 7. ) So eminent was
his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in
which an oath was usually required, the judges unan-
imously agreed that his simple asseveration should be
taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even
Philip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt
him. When he was sent, with several others, upon
an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in-
tercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta-
tion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those
who had come to him on embassies from foreign
states, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship
? ? he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert. , 4,
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? XEN
tuei taught that if there ever had been a time when
nothing existed^ nothing ucr. ikl ever have existed.
That whatever is, always has been from eternity, with-
out deriving its existence from any prior principle;
that nature is one and without limit; that what is one
is similar in all its part*, else it would be many; that
the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe
is immutable and incapable of change; that God is
one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe,
tpherical in form; that he is of the same nature with
the universe, comprehending all things within himself;
is intelligent, and pervades aii things, but bears no re-
semblance to human nature either in body or mind.
(Enjidfs History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414. )
XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl-
lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and
commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe
^Ege'is, B. C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ. , vol. 51,
p. 370. ) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the
most respectable characters among the disciples of
Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his
master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi-
losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten-
tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and
private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck
with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a
fair form as a probable indication of a well-propor-
tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num-
ber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar-
row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across
the path, and, slopping him, asked where those things
were to be purchased which are necessary to human
life. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply ! " this
unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him
where honest and good men were to be found. Xcn-
aphon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow
me, and learn. " From that time Xenophon became a
disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that
moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent.
Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian
war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun-
try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part
of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts,
saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also
fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved
no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made
prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph. ,
1, 12) informs us that he. attended the instructions of
Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Boeotia.
How his time was employed during the period which
preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as-
certained; it is more than probable, however, that he
was'engaged during the interval in several campaigns,
since the skill and experience displayed in conducting
the retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar
acquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty-
three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus
the BoDOtian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-
tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en-
ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother
of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-
ed Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso-
pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old
pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by
pining a prince who had shown himself disposed to
aid the Lacedemonians in their war against Athens.
He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult
the god about his intended scheme. Xenophon obey-
? ? ed, but merely asked the oracle to which one of the
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? XENOPHON
XENOPHOX
aays, and In this tetreat dedicated his time to literary
pursuits. Xonophon himself has given us, in tr**Ana-
basis (5,3,7), an interesting account of his residence at
Scilluns, where he erected a temple to the Ephesi an Di-
ara, in performance of a vow made during the famous
retreat which he so ably conducted. In this place he
died, in th/- 90th year of his age. Pausanias, who vis-
ited the ruins of Scilluns, states that the tomb of Xen-
ophon was pointed out to him, and over it his statue of
Pentelic marble. He adds, that when the Eleans took
Scilluns, they brought Xenophon to trial for having ac-
cepted the estate at the hands of the Spartans, but that
he was acquitted, and allowed to reside there vfithout
molestation. The common account, however, makes
him to have retired to Corinth when a war had bro-
ken out between the Spartans and Eleans, and to
have ended his days there. The integrity, the piety,
and the moderation of Xenophon rendered him an
ornament to the Socratic School, and proved how
much he had profited by the precepts of his master.
His whole military conduct discovered an admirable
union of wisdom and valour. And his writings, at the
same time that they have afforded, to all succeed-
ing ages, one of the most perfect models of purity,
simplicity, and harmony of language, abound with sen-
timents truly Socratic. --By his wife Phitosia Xeno-
phon had two sons, Gryllus and Diodorui; the for-
mer of whom fell with glory in the battle of Manti-
nea, after having inflicted a mortal wound on Epam-
inondas, the Theban commander. (Vid. Giyllu? )
--The works of Xenophon, who has been styled,
from the sweetness and graceful simplicity of hia lam
>> guage, the " Attic bee," arc as follows: 1. 'EXXi/vtita
(" Grecian History"), in seven books. In this work
Xenophon gives a continuation of the history of Thu-
cydides, down to the battle of Mantinea. It was un-
dertaken at an advanced age, amid the retirement of
? Scilluno, ajjd completed either there or at Corinth.
The work is full of lacuna; and falsified passages.
The recital of the battle of I. euclra is not given with
sufficient development, and it is evident that Xenb-
phon relates wkh regret the victory of Epaminondas
over his adopted country. Xenophon does not imitate
- in this production the manner of Thucydidcs. That
of Herodotus accorded better with his general char-
acter as a writer, and had more analogy to the style
t( eloquence that marked the school of Isocrates,
of which Xenophon had been a disciple. --2. 'Avuoa-
oic ("The Expedition into Upper Asia"), otherwise
called "the Retreat of the Ten Thousand. " Xeno-
phon, as has already been remarked, bore a large share
in this glorious expedition. His narrative, written
with great clearness and singular modesty, forms one
of the most interesting works bequeathed to us by an-
tiquity. --3. Kipov TiaiSeia (" The Education of Cy-
rus"). This work not only gives a view of the earlier
years of Cyrus the Great, but also of his whole life,
and of the laws, institutions, and government employ-
ed by him at home and abroad, in peace and in war.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Ep. ad Cn. Pomp. --
Op. , vol. 6, p. 777, ed. Reiske) characterizes the work
as the cUova paaMuc ttyadov na\ eidai/iovoc:, and
Cicero (Ep. ad Q. Fr. , 1, 1, 8) warns us not to con-
sider this treatise as constructed with historic faith,
but a* a mere pattern of juat government. In fact,
the Cyropsdia is less a history than a species of his-
torical romance. Cyrus is represented to us as a wise
? ? and magnanimous, a just, generous, and patriotic king;
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? XENOPHON.
indicates, a pleading delivered in the presence of
bis judges; neither is it a defence of himself, on the
part of Socrates, against the vices and crimes laid to
bis charge; it is rather a development of the motives
which ''nduced the sage to prefer death to the humili-
ation of addressing entreaties and supplications to
prejudiced judges. Valckenaer and Schneider consider
the work unworthy of Xenophon. The former of those
critics sees in this the production of the same indi-
Tid ja! who fabricated the latter part of (he Cyrornedi*;
? vhile Schneider thinks that it once formed a portion
of the Memoirs of Socrates, and that the grammari-
ans, after detaching it from this work, falsified and
corrupted it in many places. --7. SD/OTOOIOV 0(Xo<ro-
u. '. ). ' {" Banquet of Philosophers"). The object which
Xenophon had in view in writing this piece, which is
a chef d'omvre in point of style, was to place in the
clearest light the purity of his master's principles rela-
tive to friendship ai'd love, and to render a just hom-
age to the innocence of his moral character. Some of
the ancients were persuaded that Xenophon had an-
other and secondary object, that of opposing his " Ban-
quet" to Plato's dialogue which bears the same title,
and in which Socrates had not been depicted, as Xen-
ophon thought, with all the simplicity that marked his
character. Schneider and Weiske, two celebrated
commentators on Xenophon, as well as an excellent
judge in matters of taste, the distinguished Wieland
(Attache Museum, vol. 4, p. 76), have adopted this
same opinion; but it has been attacked by two other
scholars, Boeckh and Ast. The former believes that
Plato wrote his dialogue after having read the Banquet
of Xenophon, and that, in place of Socrates as he rcal-
iy was, the founder of the Academy wished to trace,
under the name of this philosopher, the beau ideal of
a true sage, such as he had conceived the character
to be. (Conuncntalio Academica de simullate qua
Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur, Berol,
1811, 4to. ) Ast goes still farther, and pretends to
find in the Banquet of Xenophon sure indications of
its having been one of the works of his youth. (Ast,
Platens Leben und Schriflen, p. 314. )--8. 'Ifpuv f)
T-Jpanvof (" Hiero"), a dialogue. between the Syracu-
3in monarch and Simonides, in which Xenophon com-
pares the troublesome life of a prince with the tran-
quil existence of a private individual, intermingling
from tim* to time, observations on the art of govern-
ing. --9. OlKovo/iucif ioyof ("Discourse on Econo-
my"). This piece is in the form of a dialogue between
Socrates and Critobulus, son of Crito, and one of his
disciples. Some critics have regarded it as the fifth
book of the Memoirs. It is less a theory of, than a
eulogium on, rural economy, or, in other words, a
treatise on morality as applied to rural arid domestic
life. It contains also some interesting and instructive
details relative to the state of agricuflurc among the
Greeks: we find in it, likewise, some anecdotes re-
specting the younger Cyrus. Cicero translated this
work into Latin,'and Virgil has drawn from it the ma-
terials for some passages in his Georgics. --11. Tlepl
Isnruqf (" On the Knowledge of Horses"). A very
useful treatise, in which Xenophon makes known the
marks by which a good horse may be discovered.
He cites, abridges, and completes the work of a cer-
tain Simon, who had written on this subject before him<<
--11. 'Iirjrap^tKOf (" Hipparchtats, or the duties of an
officer of cavalry"). After having said something re-
specting the knowledge of horses necessary for an of
? ? ficer of cavalry to have, Xenophon lays down the
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? XERXES.
prince who had acquired it by his boldness and pru-
dence, to one born in the palace, the favourite son of
the favourite queen, who had been accustomed, from
his infancy, to regard the kingdom as his inheritance,
perhaps to think that the blood of Cyrus which flowed
in his veins raised him above his father. Bred up in
the pompous luxury of the Persian court, among slaves
and women, a mark for their flattery and intrigues, he
had none of the experience which Darius had gained
in that period of his life when Syloson's cloak was a
welcome present. He was probably inferior to his
father in ability; but the difference between them in
fortune and education seems to have left more traces
in their hiatory than any disparity of natrre. Ambi-
tion waa not the prominent feature in the character of
Xerxes; and, had he followed his unbiased inclina-
tion, he would, perhaps, have been content to turn the
preparations of Darius against the revolted Egyptians,
and have abandoned the expedition against Greece, to
which he was not spurred by any personal motives.
But he was surrounded by men who were led by vari-
ous passions and interests to desire that he should
prosecute his father's plans of conquest and revenge.
Mardonius was eager to renew an enterprise in which
he had been foiled through unavoidable mischance, not
through his own incapacity. He had reputation to re-
trieve, and might look forward to the possession of a
great European satrapy, at such a distance from the
court as would make him almost an absolute sover-
eign. He was warmly seconded by the Greeks, who
had been drawn to Susa by the report of the approach-
ing invasion of their country, and who wanted foreign
aid to accomplish their designs. The Thcss'alian
house of the Aleuads, either because they thought
their power insecure, or expected to increase it by be-
coming vassals of the Persian king, sent their emissa-
ries to invite him to the conquest of Greece. The ex-
iled Pisiatratids had no other chance for the recovery
of Athens. They had brought a man named Onomac-
ritus with them to court, who was one of the first
among the Greeks to practise an art, afterward very
common, that of forging prophecies and oracles.
While their family ruled at Athens, he had been de-
tected in fabricating verses, which he had interpolated
in a work ascribed to the ancient seer Mussous, and
Hipparchus, before his patron, had banished him from
the city. But the exiles saw the use they might make
of his talents, and had taken him into their service.
They now recommended him to Xerxes as a man who
possessed a treasure of prophetical knowledge, and the
young king listened with unsuspecting confidence to
the encouraging predictions which Onomacritus drew
from his inexhaustible stores. These various engines
at length prevailed. The imagination of Xerxes was
inflamed with the prospect of rivalling or surpassing the
Achievements of his glorious predecessors, and of ex-
tending his dominion to the ends of the earth. (Herod. ,
7,8. ) He. resolved on the invasion of Greece. First,
however, in the second year of his reign, he led an army
against Egypt, and brought it again under the Persian
yoke, which was purposely made more burdensome and
galling than before. He intrusted it to the care of his
brother Achemencs, and then returned to Persia, and
bent all his thoughts towards the West. Only one of
hia counsellors, Lis uncle Artabanus, is said to havee
been wise and honest enough to endeavour to divert him
from the enterprise, and especially to dissuade him from
risking hia own person in it. If any reliance could be
? ? placed on the story told by Herodotus about the de-
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? XERXES
cluiln. g inaaj strange varieties ul complexion, dress, and
language, commanded by Thcssalian generals, but re-
taining each tribe its national armour and mode of fight-
ing. An interval was then left, after which came 1000
picked Persian cavalry, foUuwcd by an equal number of
spearmen, whose lances, which they carried with the
points' turned downward, ended in knobs of gold.
Next, ten sacred horses, of the Nisasan breed, were led
in gorgeous caparisons, preceding the chariot of the
Persian Jove, drawn by eight white horses, the dri-
var following on f"? t. Then came the royal chariot,
tlra drawn by Nisajao. horses, in which Xerxes sat in
(tale; but from time to time he exchanged it for an
easier carriage, which sheltered him from the sun and
the changes of the weather. He was followed by two
bandt of horse and foot, like those which went imme-
diately before him, and by a body of 10,000 Persian
infantry, the flower of the whole army, who were called
the Immortals, because their number was kept con-
stantly lull A thousand of them, who occupied the
outer ranks, Dore lances knobbed with gold; those of
the rest were similarly ornamented with silver. They
were followed by an equal number of Persian cavalry.
The remainder of the host brought up the rear. In
'. his order the army reached Abydus, and Xerxes, from
a lofty throne, surveyed the crowded sides and bosom
. if the Hellespont, and the image of a seafight; a
jpectacle which Herodotus might well think sufficient
co have moved him with a touch of human sympathy.
The passage did not begin before the king had prayed to
. he rising sun, and had tried to propitiate the Helles-
jjont itself by libations, and by casting into it golden
vessels and a sword. After the bridges had been
itrewed with myrtle and purified with incense, the Ten
Thousand Immortals, crowned with chaplcts, led the
way The army crossed by one bridge, the baggage
oy the other; yet the living tide flowed without inter-
mission for seven days and seven nights before the
last man, as Herodotus heard, the king himself, the
tallest and most majestic person in the host, had ar-
rived on the European shore. In the great plain of
Doriscus, on the banks of the Hebrus, an attempt was
made to number the land force. A space was en-
closed large enough to contain 10,000 men; into
this the myriads were successively poured and dis-
charged, till the whole mass had been rudely counted.
They were then drawn up according to their natural di-
visions, and Xerxes rode in his chariot along the ranks,
while the royal scribes recorded the names, and most
likely the equipments, of the different races. It is an
ingenious and probable conjecture of Heeren's (litten.
1, p. 137), that this authentic document was the ori-
ginal source from which Herodotus drew his minute
description of their dress and weapons. The real mil-
itary strength of the armament was almost lost among
the undisciplined herds which could only impede its
movements as well as consume its stores. . The Per-
sians were the core of both the land and sea force; none
of the other troops are said to have equalled them in dis-
cipline or in courage; and the four-and-twenty thous-
and men who guarded the royal person were the flower
of the whole nation. Yet these, as we see from their
glittering armour, as well as from their performances,
were much better fitted for show than for action; and
of the rest, we hear that they were distinguished from
the mass of the army, not only by their superior order
and valour, but also by the abundance of gold they
displayed, by the train of carriages, women, and ser-
? ? vants that followed them, and by the provisions set
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? Z AL
ZF. L
plentiful quarters; but intemperate indulgence ren-
dered '. in; sudden change from scarcity to abundance
almost as pernicious as the previous famine. The
remnant that Xerxea brought back to Sardis was a
wreck, a fragment, rather than a part of his huge host.
--The history of Xerxes, after the termination of his
Grecian campaign, may be comprised in a brief com-
pass. He gave himself up to a. life of dissolute pleas-
ire, and was slain by Artabanus, a capuiin of the royal
guards, B. C. 464. (Vid. Artabanus U. --TkirlwaWs
llistory of Greece, vol. 2, p. 315, seq. )--II. A son of
Artaxerxes Mnemon, who succeeded his father, but
<<ds slain, after a reign of forty-five days, by bis broth-
er Sogdianus. (Vid. Sogdianus. )
Xois, a city of Egypt, situate on an island in the
Phatnetic branch of the' Nile, below Sebennytus.
Mannert takes it to be the same with the Papremis of
Herodotus (Geogr. , vol. 10, p, 571).
Xuthus, a son of Hcllen, grandson of Deucalion.
lV,d. Hellas, c, 1).
Zabatus, a river in the northern part of Assyria,
rising in Mount Zagrus, and falling into the Tigris.
It is called Zabatus by Xenophon, but otherwise Za-
ius or Zerbis, and traverses a largo portion of Assyria.
This stream was also termed Lye us (Atiicoc), or " Me
wolf," by the Greeks: but it has resumed its primitive
denomination of Zab, or, according to some modern
travellers, Zarb. (l'olyb. , 5, 51. --Amm. Marc, 23,
14. --Xcn. , Anab. , 2, 5--Flin. , 6, 26. ) Farther
down, another river, named Zabus Minor, and called
by the Macedonians Caprus (Kdirpof), or " the boar,"
is also received by the Tigris, and is now called by
the Turks Altonson, or the river of gold. (Folyb. , 5,
51 )
Zabdickxe. a district in Mesopotamia, in which was
situated a city named Zabda or Bczabda. It was
yielded to the Persians by Jovian. {Amm. Marc. ,
25, 7. )
Zabus, a river of Assyria, falling into the Tigris.
(Vid. Zabatus. )
Zacynthus (Zukvv$oc), an island in the Ionian Sea,
lo the west of the Peloponnesus, and below Cephalle-
sia. Pliny affirms that it was once called Hyrie; but
this fact is not recorded by Homer, who constantly
? scs the former name (17. , 2, 634. -- Od. , 1, 246),
which was said to be derived from Zacynthus, the son
of Dardanus, an Arcadian chief. (Fau-san. , 8, 24. )
A very ancient tradition ascribed to Zacynthus the
foundation of Saguntum in Spain, in conjunction
with the Rutuli of Ardea. (Lh. , 21, 7. ) Thucydi-
des informs us that, at a later period, this island re-
ceived a colony of Achajans from Peloponnesus (2,
66. ) Not long before the Peloponnesian war, the isl-
and was reduced by Tolmides, the Athenian general,
from which period we find Zaeynthua allied to, or,
rather, dependant upon, Athens. It subsequently fell
into the hands of Philip III. , king of Macedon (Polyb. ,
5, 4), and was afterward occupied by the Romans,
under Val. Lievinus, during the second Punic war.
On this occasion, the chief city of the island, which
bore the same name, was captured, with the exception
of its citadel. (Lip. , 26, 24). Zacynthus, however,
was subsequently restored to Philip. It was afterward
sold to the Achacans, and given up by them to tho
Romans on its being claimed by the latter. The mod-
ern name is Zaiut. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2,
p. 56, scqq. )
? ? Zaleucus, a lawgiver m Magna Grascia, and tho
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? ZEN
ZENO.
ase of the well-knuvn expressions, "Vcni, nidi, vtci. "
--The raocern village of Zile or Kiel occupies the
? itc of (he ancient city. (Plin. , C3. --Hirttiu, B.
A. . 72. )
ZKNO, I. the founder of the sect of the Stoics, born
at Citiurn, in the island of Cyprus. His father was by
profession a merchant, but, discovering in his sou a
strong propensity towards learning, he early devoted
him to the study of philosophy In his mercantile ca-
|>acity, the former had frequent occasions to visit Ath-
ens, win'H' he purchased for the young Zeno several of
the writings of the most eminent Socratic philosophers.
These he read with great avidity; and, when he was
about thirty years of age, he determined to take a voy-
age to a city which was so celebrated both as a mart
of trade and of science. Whether this voyage was in
part mercantile, or wholly undertaken for the sake of
conversing. with those philosophers whose writings
Zeno'had long admired, is uncertain. If it be true,
as some writers relate, that he brought with him a val-
uable cargo of Phoenician purple, which was lost by
shipwreck upon the coast of Attica, this circumstance
will account for the facility with which he at first at-
tached himself to a sect whose leading principle was
contempt of riches. Upon his first arrival in Athens,
going accidentally into the shop of a bookseller, he took
up a volume of the commentaries of Xenophon, and,
after reading a few passages, was so much delighted
with the work, and formed so high an idea of its author,
that he asked the bookseller where he might meet with
such men. Crates, the Cynic philosopher, happening
at that instant to be passing by, the bookseller pointed
to him, and said, "Follow that man. " Zeno soon
found an opportunity of attending upon the instruc-
tions of Crates, and was so well pleased with his doc-
trine that he became one of his disciples. But, though
he highly admired the general principles and spirit of
the Cynic school, he could not easily reconcile him-
self to their peculiar manners. Besides, his inquisi-
tive turn of mind would not allow him to adopt that
indifference to every scientific inquiry which was one
of the characteristic distinctions of the sect. He there-
fore attended upon other masters, who professed to
instruct their disciples in the nature and causes of
ihings. When Crates, displeased at his following
itlnT philosophers, attempted to drag him by force
out of the school of Stilpo, Zeno said to him, "You
may seize my body, but Stilpo has laid hold of my
mind. " After continuing to attend upon the-lectures
of Stilpo for several years, he passed over to other
schools, particularly those of Xenocratcs and Diodo-
rus Chronus. By the latter he was instructed in dia-
lectics. At last, after attending almost every other
master, he offered himself as a disciple of Polerno.
This philosopher appears to have been aware that Ze-
no's intention in thus removing from one school to
another was to collect materials from various quarters
for a new system of his own; for, when he came into
Polemo's school, the latter said to him, "I am no
stranger to your Phosnician arts, Zeno; I perceive
that your design is to creep slyly into my garden and
steal away my fruit. " Polemo was not mistaken in
his opinion. Having made himself master of the ten-
ets of others, Zeno determined to become the found-
er of a new sect. The place which he made choice
of for his school was called the Facile (Ilo<<U>7 Zroo),
or Painted Porch; a public portico, so called from
? ? the pictures of Polygnotus, and other eminent mas-
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? ZENO.
nerung his masters especially those of the Platonic
fcluxii, and that he was not so much an inventor of
new opinions as of new terms. That, this was the
leal character of the Porch will fully appear from an
attentive perusal of the clear and accurate comparison
which Cicero has drawn between the doctrines of the
Old Academy and those of the Stoics, in hia Academ-
ic Ques;iins. As to the moral doctrine of the Cynic
sect, to which Zeno adhered to the last, there can be
no doubt that he transferred it almost without alloy
into his own school. In morals, the principal differ-
ence between the Cynics arid the Stoics was, that
the former disdained the cultivation of nature, the
latter affected to rise above it. On the subject of
physics, Zeno received his doctrine from Pythagoras
and Hcraclitus through the channel of the Platonic
school, as will fully appear from a careful compar-
ison of their respective systems. The moral part of
the Stoical philosophy partook of the defects of its
origin. It may as justly be objected against the Sto-
ics as the Cynics, that they assumed an artificial se-
verity of manners and a lone of virtue above the
condition of man. Their doctrine of moral wisdom
was an ostentatious display of words, in which lit-
tle regard was paid to nature and reason. It professed
to raise human nature to a degree of perfection before
unknown; but its real effect was merely to amuse the
ear and captivate the fancy with fictions that can never
be realized. The Stoical doctrine concerning nature
is as follows: . according to Zeno and his followers,
there existed from eternity a dark and confused chaos,
in which were contained the first principles of all fu-
. ture beings. This chaos being at length arranged,
and emerging into variable forms, became the world
as it now subsists. The world, or nature, is that
whole which comprehends all things, and of which all
things are parts and members. The universe, though
ORB whole, contains two principles, distinct from ele-
caents, one passive and the other active. The passive
principle is pure matter without qualities; the active
principle is reason, or God.
The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthemus, in Stephanus
of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apol-
lonius Rhodius : by Hephasslion also (p. 14, ed. Gait/. ).
The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in
his "Historic orum Gracorum Anliquiss. Frogmen-
fa," Heidelb. , 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit. ,
vol. 2, p. 109, seqq. )
Xenoclks, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by
Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on
one occasion (Olym. 91. 2, B. C. 415). He was of
dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus.
In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term /ir/xavoSi^ac
to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xen-
ocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and
stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his
gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed. , p. 66. )
Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, born at
Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B. C. 400. H first
attached himself to /Eschines, but afterward became
a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating
his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, com-
paring him with Aristotle, who was also one of his
pupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the
spar, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required
the curb. His temper was,glooiny, his aspect severe,
and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These
material defects his master took great pains to cor-
rect, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Gra-
- ces; and tlfc pupil was patient of instruction, and
knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He
compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice,
which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains what-
ever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates
* attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a vio-
lent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut
iff his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this,"
ajointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc-
rates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after
his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in
the second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad,
B. C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the
auccessor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this
time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it
should seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-
pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme-
diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi-
tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con-
tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel-
ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom,
but also for his virtues. (Val. Max. , 2, 10. --Cie. , ad
Alt. , 2, 16. -- Diog. Laert. , 4, 7. ) So eminent was
his reputation for integrity, that when he was called
upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in
which an oath was usually required, the judges unan-
imously agreed that his simple asseveration should be
taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even
Philip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt
him. When he was sent, with several others, upon
an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in-
tercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta-
tion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those
who had come to him on embassies from foreign
states, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship
? ? he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert. , 4,
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? XEN
tuei taught that if there ever had been a time when
nothing existed^ nothing ucr. ikl ever have existed.
That whatever is, always has been from eternity, with-
out deriving its existence from any prior principle;
that nature is one and without limit; that what is one
is similar in all its part*, else it would be many; that
the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe
is immutable and incapable of change; that God is
one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe,
tpherical in form; that he is of the same nature with
the universe, comprehending all things within himself;
is intelligent, and pervades aii things, but bears no re-
semblance to human nature either in body or mind.
(Enjidfs History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414. )
XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl-
lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and
commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe
^Ege'is, B. C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ. , vol. 51,
p. 370. ) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the
most respectable characters among the disciples of
Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his
master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi-
losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten-
tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and
private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck
with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a
fair form as a probable indication of a well-propor-
tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num-
ber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar-
row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across
the path, and, slopping him, asked where those things
were to be purchased which are necessary to human
life. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply ! " this
unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him
where honest and good men were to be found. Xcn-
aphon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow
me, and learn. " From that time Xenophon became a
disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that
moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent.
Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian
war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun-
try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part
of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts,
saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also
fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved
no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made
prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph. ,
1, 12) informs us that he. attended the instructions of
Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Boeotia.
How his time was employed during the period which
preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as-
certained; it is more than probable, however, that he
was'engaged during the interval in several campaigns,
since the skill and experience displayed in conducting
the retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar
acquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty-
three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus
the BoDOtian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-
tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en-
ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother
of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-
ed Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso-
pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old
pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by
pining a prince who had shown himself disposed to
aid the Lacedemonians in their war against Athens.
He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult
the god about his intended scheme. Xenophon obey-
? ? ed, but merely asked the oracle to which one of the
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? XENOPHON
XENOPHOX
aays, and In this tetreat dedicated his time to literary
pursuits. Xonophon himself has given us, in tr**Ana-
basis (5,3,7), an interesting account of his residence at
Scilluns, where he erected a temple to the Ephesi an Di-
ara, in performance of a vow made during the famous
retreat which he so ably conducted. In this place he
died, in th/- 90th year of his age. Pausanias, who vis-
ited the ruins of Scilluns, states that the tomb of Xen-
ophon was pointed out to him, and over it his statue of
Pentelic marble. He adds, that when the Eleans took
Scilluns, they brought Xenophon to trial for having ac-
cepted the estate at the hands of the Spartans, but that
he was acquitted, and allowed to reside there vfithout
molestation. The common account, however, makes
him to have retired to Corinth when a war had bro-
ken out between the Spartans and Eleans, and to
have ended his days there. The integrity, the piety,
and the moderation of Xenophon rendered him an
ornament to the Socratic School, and proved how
much he had profited by the precepts of his master.
His whole military conduct discovered an admirable
union of wisdom and valour. And his writings, at the
same time that they have afforded, to all succeed-
ing ages, one of the most perfect models of purity,
simplicity, and harmony of language, abound with sen-
timents truly Socratic. --By his wife Phitosia Xeno-
phon had two sons, Gryllus and Diodorui; the for-
mer of whom fell with glory in the battle of Manti-
nea, after having inflicted a mortal wound on Epam-
inondas, the Theban commander. (Vid. Giyllu? )
--The works of Xenophon, who has been styled,
from the sweetness and graceful simplicity of hia lam
>> guage, the " Attic bee," arc as follows: 1. 'EXXi/vtita
(" Grecian History"), in seven books. In this work
Xenophon gives a continuation of the history of Thu-
cydides, down to the battle of Mantinea. It was un-
dertaken at an advanced age, amid the retirement of
? Scilluno, ajjd completed either there or at Corinth.
The work is full of lacuna; and falsified passages.
The recital of the battle of I. euclra is not given with
sufficient development, and it is evident that Xenb-
phon relates wkh regret the victory of Epaminondas
over his adopted country. Xenophon does not imitate
- in this production the manner of Thucydidcs. That
of Herodotus accorded better with his general char-
acter as a writer, and had more analogy to the style
t( eloquence that marked the school of Isocrates,
of which Xenophon had been a disciple. --2. 'Avuoa-
oic ("The Expedition into Upper Asia"), otherwise
called "the Retreat of the Ten Thousand. " Xeno-
phon, as has already been remarked, bore a large share
in this glorious expedition. His narrative, written
with great clearness and singular modesty, forms one
of the most interesting works bequeathed to us by an-
tiquity. --3. Kipov TiaiSeia (" The Education of Cy-
rus"). This work not only gives a view of the earlier
years of Cyrus the Great, but also of his whole life,
and of the laws, institutions, and government employ-
ed by him at home and abroad, in peace and in war.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Ep. ad Cn. Pomp. --
Op. , vol. 6, p. 777, ed. Reiske) characterizes the work
as the cUova paaMuc ttyadov na\ eidai/iovoc:, and
Cicero (Ep. ad Q. Fr. , 1, 1, 8) warns us not to con-
sider this treatise as constructed with historic faith,
but a* a mere pattern of juat government. In fact,
the Cyropsdia is less a history than a species of his-
torical romance. Cyrus is represented to us as a wise
? ? and magnanimous, a just, generous, and patriotic king;
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? XENOPHON.
indicates, a pleading delivered in the presence of
bis judges; neither is it a defence of himself, on the
part of Socrates, against the vices and crimes laid to
bis charge; it is rather a development of the motives
which ''nduced the sage to prefer death to the humili-
ation of addressing entreaties and supplications to
prejudiced judges. Valckenaer and Schneider consider
the work unworthy of Xenophon. The former of those
critics sees in this the production of the same indi-
Tid ja! who fabricated the latter part of (he Cyrornedi*;
? vhile Schneider thinks that it once formed a portion
of the Memoirs of Socrates, and that the grammari-
ans, after detaching it from this work, falsified and
corrupted it in many places. --7. SD/OTOOIOV 0(Xo<ro-
u. '. ). ' {" Banquet of Philosophers"). The object which
Xenophon had in view in writing this piece, which is
a chef d'omvre in point of style, was to place in the
clearest light the purity of his master's principles rela-
tive to friendship ai'd love, and to render a just hom-
age to the innocence of his moral character. Some of
the ancients were persuaded that Xenophon had an-
other and secondary object, that of opposing his " Ban-
quet" to Plato's dialogue which bears the same title,
and in which Socrates had not been depicted, as Xen-
ophon thought, with all the simplicity that marked his
character. Schneider and Weiske, two celebrated
commentators on Xenophon, as well as an excellent
judge in matters of taste, the distinguished Wieland
(Attache Museum, vol. 4, p. 76), have adopted this
same opinion; but it has been attacked by two other
scholars, Boeckh and Ast. The former believes that
Plato wrote his dialogue after having read the Banquet
of Xenophon, and that, in place of Socrates as he rcal-
iy was, the founder of the Academy wished to trace,
under the name of this philosopher, the beau ideal of
a true sage, such as he had conceived the character
to be. (Conuncntalio Academica de simullate qua
Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur, Berol,
1811, 4to. ) Ast goes still farther, and pretends to
find in the Banquet of Xenophon sure indications of
its having been one of the works of his youth. (Ast,
Platens Leben und Schriflen, p. 314. )--8. 'Ifpuv f)
T-Jpanvof (" Hiero"), a dialogue. between the Syracu-
3in monarch and Simonides, in which Xenophon com-
pares the troublesome life of a prince with the tran-
quil existence of a private individual, intermingling
from tim* to time, observations on the art of govern-
ing. --9. OlKovo/iucif ioyof ("Discourse on Econo-
my"). This piece is in the form of a dialogue between
Socrates and Critobulus, son of Crito, and one of his
disciples. Some critics have regarded it as the fifth
book of the Memoirs. It is less a theory of, than a
eulogium on, rural economy, or, in other words, a
treatise on morality as applied to rural arid domestic
life. It contains also some interesting and instructive
details relative to the state of agricuflurc among the
Greeks: we find in it, likewise, some anecdotes re-
specting the younger Cyrus. Cicero translated this
work into Latin,'and Virgil has drawn from it the ma-
terials for some passages in his Georgics. --11. Tlepl
Isnruqf (" On the Knowledge of Horses"). A very
useful treatise, in which Xenophon makes known the
marks by which a good horse may be discovered.
He cites, abridges, and completes the work of a cer-
tain Simon, who had written on this subject before him<<
--11. 'Iirjrap^tKOf (" Hipparchtats, or the duties of an
officer of cavalry"). After having said something re-
specting the knowledge of horses necessary for an of
? ? ficer of cavalry to have, Xenophon lays down the
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? XERXES.
prince who had acquired it by his boldness and pru-
dence, to one born in the palace, the favourite son of
the favourite queen, who had been accustomed, from
his infancy, to regard the kingdom as his inheritance,
perhaps to think that the blood of Cyrus which flowed
in his veins raised him above his father. Bred up in
the pompous luxury of the Persian court, among slaves
and women, a mark for their flattery and intrigues, he
had none of the experience which Darius had gained
in that period of his life when Syloson's cloak was a
welcome present. He was probably inferior to his
father in ability; but the difference between them in
fortune and education seems to have left more traces
in their hiatory than any disparity of natrre. Ambi-
tion waa not the prominent feature in the character of
Xerxes; and, had he followed his unbiased inclina-
tion, he would, perhaps, have been content to turn the
preparations of Darius against the revolted Egyptians,
and have abandoned the expedition against Greece, to
which he was not spurred by any personal motives.
But he was surrounded by men who were led by vari-
ous passions and interests to desire that he should
prosecute his father's plans of conquest and revenge.
Mardonius was eager to renew an enterprise in which
he had been foiled through unavoidable mischance, not
through his own incapacity. He had reputation to re-
trieve, and might look forward to the possession of a
great European satrapy, at such a distance from the
court as would make him almost an absolute sover-
eign. He was warmly seconded by the Greeks, who
had been drawn to Susa by the report of the approach-
ing invasion of their country, and who wanted foreign
aid to accomplish their designs. The Thcss'alian
house of the Aleuads, either because they thought
their power insecure, or expected to increase it by be-
coming vassals of the Persian king, sent their emissa-
ries to invite him to the conquest of Greece. The ex-
iled Pisiatratids had no other chance for the recovery
of Athens. They had brought a man named Onomac-
ritus with them to court, who was one of the first
among the Greeks to practise an art, afterward very
common, that of forging prophecies and oracles.
While their family ruled at Athens, he had been de-
tected in fabricating verses, which he had interpolated
in a work ascribed to the ancient seer Mussous, and
Hipparchus, before his patron, had banished him from
the city. But the exiles saw the use they might make
of his talents, and had taken him into their service.
They now recommended him to Xerxes as a man who
possessed a treasure of prophetical knowledge, and the
young king listened with unsuspecting confidence to
the encouraging predictions which Onomacritus drew
from his inexhaustible stores. These various engines
at length prevailed. The imagination of Xerxes was
inflamed with the prospect of rivalling or surpassing the
Achievements of his glorious predecessors, and of ex-
tending his dominion to the ends of the earth. (Herod. ,
7,8. ) He. resolved on the invasion of Greece. First,
however, in the second year of his reign, he led an army
against Egypt, and brought it again under the Persian
yoke, which was purposely made more burdensome and
galling than before. He intrusted it to the care of his
brother Achemencs, and then returned to Persia, and
bent all his thoughts towards the West. Only one of
hia counsellors, Lis uncle Artabanus, is said to havee
been wise and honest enough to endeavour to divert him
from the enterprise, and especially to dissuade him from
risking hia own person in it. If any reliance could be
? ? placed on the story told by Herodotus about the de-
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? XERXES
cluiln. g inaaj strange varieties ul complexion, dress, and
language, commanded by Thcssalian generals, but re-
taining each tribe its national armour and mode of fight-
ing. An interval was then left, after which came 1000
picked Persian cavalry, foUuwcd by an equal number of
spearmen, whose lances, which they carried with the
points' turned downward, ended in knobs of gold.
Next, ten sacred horses, of the Nisasan breed, were led
in gorgeous caparisons, preceding the chariot of the
Persian Jove, drawn by eight white horses, the dri-
var following on f"? t. Then came the royal chariot,
tlra drawn by Nisajao. horses, in which Xerxes sat in
(tale; but from time to time he exchanged it for an
easier carriage, which sheltered him from the sun and
the changes of the weather. He was followed by two
bandt of horse and foot, like those which went imme-
diately before him, and by a body of 10,000 Persian
infantry, the flower of the whole army, who were called
the Immortals, because their number was kept con-
stantly lull A thousand of them, who occupied the
outer ranks, Dore lances knobbed with gold; those of
the rest were similarly ornamented with silver. They
were followed by an equal number of Persian cavalry.
The remainder of the host brought up the rear. In
'. his order the army reached Abydus, and Xerxes, from
a lofty throne, surveyed the crowded sides and bosom
. if the Hellespont, and the image of a seafight; a
jpectacle which Herodotus might well think sufficient
co have moved him with a touch of human sympathy.
The passage did not begin before the king had prayed to
. he rising sun, and had tried to propitiate the Helles-
jjont itself by libations, and by casting into it golden
vessels and a sword. After the bridges had been
itrewed with myrtle and purified with incense, the Ten
Thousand Immortals, crowned with chaplcts, led the
way The army crossed by one bridge, the baggage
oy the other; yet the living tide flowed without inter-
mission for seven days and seven nights before the
last man, as Herodotus heard, the king himself, the
tallest and most majestic person in the host, had ar-
rived on the European shore. In the great plain of
Doriscus, on the banks of the Hebrus, an attempt was
made to number the land force. A space was en-
closed large enough to contain 10,000 men; into
this the myriads were successively poured and dis-
charged, till the whole mass had been rudely counted.
They were then drawn up according to their natural di-
visions, and Xerxes rode in his chariot along the ranks,
while the royal scribes recorded the names, and most
likely the equipments, of the different races. It is an
ingenious and probable conjecture of Heeren's (litten.
1, p. 137), that this authentic document was the ori-
ginal source from which Herodotus drew his minute
description of their dress and weapons. The real mil-
itary strength of the armament was almost lost among
the undisciplined herds which could only impede its
movements as well as consume its stores. . The Per-
sians were the core of both the land and sea force; none
of the other troops are said to have equalled them in dis-
cipline or in courage; and the four-and-twenty thous-
and men who guarded the royal person were the flower
of the whole nation. Yet these, as we see from their
glittering armour, as well as from their performances,
were much better fitted for show than for action; and
of the rest, we hear that they were distinguished from
the mass of the army, not only by their superior order
and valour, but also by the abundance of gold they
displayed, by the train of carriages, women, and ser-
? ? vants that followed them, and by the provisions set
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? Z AL
ZF. L
plentiful quarters; but intemperate indulgence ren-
dered '. in; sudden change from scarcity to abundance
almost as pernicious as the previous famine. The
remnant that Xerxea brought back to Sardis was a
wreck, a fragment, rather than a part of his huge host.
--The history of Xerxes, after the termination of his
Grecian campaign, may be comprised in a brief com-
pass. He gave himself up to a. life of dissolute pleas-
ire, and was slain by Artabanus, a capuiin of the royal
guards, B. C. 464. (Vid. Artabanus U. --TkirlwaWs
llistory of Greece, vol. 2, p. 315, seq. )--II. A son of
Artaxerxes Mnemon, who succeeded his father, but
<<ds slain, after a reign of forty-five days, by bis broth-
er Sogdianus. (Vid. Sogdianus. )
Xois, a city of Egypt, situate on an island in the
Phatnetic branch of the' Nile, below Sebennytus.
Mannert takes it to be the same with the Papremis of
Herodotus (Geogr. , vol. 10, p, 571).
Xuthus, a son of Hcllen, grandson of Deucalion.
lV,d. Hellas, c, 1).
Zabatus, a river in the northern part of Assyria,
rising in Mount Zagrus, and falling into the Tigris.
It is called Zabatus by Xenophon, but otherwise Za-
ius or Zerbis, and traverses a largo portion of Assyria.
This stream was also termed Lye us (Atiicoc), or " Me
wolf," by the Greeks: but it has resumed its primitive
denomination of Zab, or, according to some modern
travellers, Zarb. (l'olyb. , 5, 51. --Amm. Marc, 23,
14. --Xcn. , Anab. , 2, 5--Flin. , 6, 26. ) Farther
down, another river, named Zabus Minor, and called
by the Macedonians Caprus (Kdirpof), or " the boar,"
is also received by the Tigris, and is now called by
the Turks Altonson, or the river of gold. (Folyb. , 5,
51 )
Zabdickxe. a district in Mesopotamia, in which was
situated a city named Zabda or Bczabda. It was
yielded to the Persians by Jovian. {Amm. Marc. ,
25, 7. )
Zabus, a river of Assyria, falling into the Tigris.
(Vid. Zabatus. )
Zacynthus (Zukvv$oc), an island in the Ionian Sea,
lo the west of the Peloponnesus, and below Cephalle-
sia. Pliny affirms that it was once called Hyrie; but
this fact is not recorded by Homer, who constantly
? scs the former name (17. , 2, 634. -- Od. , 1, 246),
which was said to be derived from Zacynthus, the son
of Dardanus, an Arcadian chief. (Fau-san. , 8, 24. )
A very ancient tradition ascribed to Zacynthus the
foundation of Saguntum in Spain, in conjunction
with the Rutuli of Ardea. (Lh. , 21, 7. ) Thucydi-
des informs us that, at a later period, this island re-
ceived a colony of Achajans from Peloponnesus (2,
66. ) Not long before the Peloponnesian war, the isl-
and was reduced by Tolmides, the Athenian general,
from which period we find Zaeynthua allied to, or,
rather, dependant upon, Athens. It subsequently fell
into the hands of Philip III. , king of Macedon (Polyb. ,
5, 4), and was afterward occupied by the Romans,
under Val. Lievinus, during the second Punic war.
On this occasion, the chief city of the island, which
bore the same name, was captured, with the exception
of its citadel. (Lip. , 26, 24). Zacynthus, however,
was subsequently restored to Philip. It was afterward
sold to the Achacans, and given up by them to tho
Romans on its being claimed by the latter. The mod-
ern name is Zaiut. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2,
p. 56, scqq. )
? ? Zaleucus, a lawgiver m Magna Grascia, and tho
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? ZEN
ZENO.
ase of the well-knuvn expressions, "Vcni, nidi, vtci. "
--The raocern village of Zile or Kiel occupies the
? itc of (he ancient city. (Plin. , C3. --Hirttiu, B.
A. . 72. )
ZKNO, I. the founder of the sect of the Stoics, born
at Citiurn, in the island of Cyprus. His father was by
profession a merchant, but, discovering in his sou a
strong propensity towards learning, he early devoted
him to the study of philosophy In his mercantile ca-
|>acity, the former had frequent occasions to visit Ath-
ens, win'H' he purchased for the young Zeno several of
the writings of the most eminent Socratic philosophers.
These he read with great avidity; and, when he was
about thirty years of age, he determined to take a voy-
age to a city which was so celebrated both as a mart
of trade and of science. Whether this voyage was in
part mercantile, or wholly undertaken for the sake of
conversing. with those philosophers whose writings
Zeno'had long admired, is uncertain. If it be true,
as some writers relate, that he brought with him a val-
uable cargo of Phoenician purple, which was lost by
shipwreck upon the coast of Attica, this circumstance
will account for the facility with which he at first at-
tached himself to a sect whose leading principle was
contempt of riches. Upon his first arrival in Athens,
going accidentally into the shop of a bookseller, he took
up a volume of the commentaries of Xenophon, and,
after reading a few passages, was so much delighted
with the work, and formed so high an idea of its author,
that he asked the bookseller where he might meet with
such men. Crates, the Cynic philosopher, happening
at that instant to be passing by, the bookseller pointed
to him, and said, "Follow that man. " Zeno soon
found an opportunity of attending upon the instruc-
tions of Crates, and was so well pleased with his doc-
trine that he became one of his disciples. But, though
he highly admired the general principles and spirit of
the Cynic school, he could not easily reconcile him-
self to their peculiar manners. Besides, his inquisi-
tive turn of mind would not allow him to adopt that
indifference to every scientific inquiry which was one
of the characteristic distinctions of the sect. He there-
fore attended upon other masters, who professed to
instruct their disciples in the nature and causes of
ihings. When Crates, displeased at his following
itlnT philosophers, attempted to drag him by force
out of the school of Stilpo, Zeno said to him, "You
may seize my body, but Stilpo has laid hold of my
mind. " After continuing to attend upon the-lectures
of Stilpo for several years, he passed over to other
schools, particularly those of Xenocratcs and Diodo-
rus Chronus. By the latter he was instructed in dia-
lectics. At last, after attending almost every other
master, he offered himself as a disciple of Polerno.
This philosopher appears to have been aware that Ze-
no's intention in thus removing from one school to
another was to collect materials from various quarters
for a new system of his own; for, when he came into
Polemo's school, the latter said to him, "I am no
stranger to your Phosnician arts, Zeno; I perceive
that your design is to creep slyly into my garden and
steal away my fruit. " Polemo was not mistaken in
his opinion. Having made himself master of the ten-
ets of others, Zeno determined to become the found-
er of a new sect. The place which he made choice
of for his school was called the Facile (Ilo<<U>7 Zroo),
or Painted Porch; a public portico, so called from
? ? the pictures of Polygnotus, and other eminent mas-
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? ZENO.
nerung his masters especially those of the Platonic
fcluxii, and that he was not so much an inventor of
new opinions as of new terms. That, this was the
leal character of the Porch will fully appear from an
attentive perusal of the clear and accurate comparison
which Cicero has drawn between the doctrines of the
Old Academy and those of the Stoics, in hia Academ-
ic Ques;iins. As to the moral doctrine of the Cynic
sect, to which Zeno adhered to the last, there can be
no doubt that he transferred it almost without alloy
into his own school. In morals, the principal differ-
ence between the Cynics arid the Stoics was, that
the former disdained the cultivation of nature, the
latter affected to rise above it. On the subject of
physics, Zeno received his doctrine from Pythagoras
and Hcraclitus through the channel of the Platonic
school, as will fully appear from a careful compar-
ison of their respective systems. The moral part of
the Stoical philosophy partook of the defects of its
origin. It may as justly be objected against the Sto-
ics as the Cynics, that they assumed an artificial se-
verity of manners and a lone of virtue above the
condition of man. Their doctrine of moral wisdom
was an ostentatious display of words, in which lit-
tle regard was paid to nature and reason. It professed
to raise human nature to a degree of perfection before
unknown; but its real effect was merely to amuse the
ear and captivate the fancy with fictions that can never
be realized. The Stoical doctrine concerning nature
is as follows: . according to Zeno and his followers,
there existed from eternity a dark and confused chaos,
in which were contained the first principles of all fu-
. ture beings. This chaos being at length arranged,
and emerging into variable forms, became the world
as it now subsists. The world, or nature, is that
whole which comprehends all things, and of which all
things are parts and members. The universe, though
ORB whole, contains two principles, distinct from ele-
caents, one passive and the other active. The passive
principle is pure matter without qualities; the active
principle is reason, or God.
